ADVANCED 

R STEPS!! 





Class _P 



4 \ I 



Book 



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Copyright N°. 



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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



ADVANCED 

STEPS IN ENGLISH 



BY 

A. C. McLEAN, A.M. 

Principal of Luckev Schools, Pittsburg, Pa. 

THOS. C. BLAISDELL, Ph.D. 

Professor of English in the Fifth Avenue Normal High School, 
Pittsburg, Pa. 

AND 

JOHN MORROW, M.S. 

Superintendent of Schools, Allegheny, Pa. 



NEW YORK .:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 






: 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Cootes Re««e<l 

I JAN 3 J906 

Copyrif ht Entry _ 

cuss a- xxc.no 



COPY B. 




Copyright, 1903, 1905, by 
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. 



Entered at Stationers' Hall. London. 



ADV. STEPS IN ENGLISH. 



PLAN AND PURPOSE. 

This book is intended to provide a practical teaching man- 
ual of English for the three, years preceding the high school. 

Each of the three parts consists of two divisions, Grammar 
and Composition, which should be studied together. While 
each division is complete in itself, constant inter-reference 
welds the several divisions into a unit. In many instances 
the same subjects are treated both in the Grammar and 
in the Composition, in the one rather from the side of 
theory, in the other more directly from the side of prac- 
tice. It is believed that this dual arrangement makes 
each treatment more logical, more practical, and more 
pedagogical. 

The lessons both in the Grammar and in the Composi- 
tion are largely inductive. From usage as seen in sen- 
tences and in selections the pupil is led to develop the 
principles of correct speaking and effective writing. Rules 
and definitions are made clear before they are stated. 

As valuable knowledge comes only from doing, many 
examples and illustrative exercises are provided. Where 
practicable these examples are given in contrast, that the 
pupil by comparison may discover principles and make dis- 
tinctions which, otherwise presented, might not be clean 

As adequate expression in language can be acquired only 
by talking and writing, under proper guidance, about that 
which is familiar, all composition work is based on the 
child's experiences, — on the things he himself has done or 
has seen done. In dwelling on these experiences the fact 
also has been emphasized that real appreciation of litera- 

3 



4 PLAN AND PURPOSE 

ture depends largely upon a vivid remembrance of details 
and of acts seen and performed ; without such remembrance 
the suggestions in literature can not be understood. 

The practical value of grammar is emphasized in the 
Composition. Its use and importance are constantly kept 
before the pupil by the application of its principles in oral 
and written work. In other words, the fact that a book 
on English must help to make fluent, correct, and effective 
speakers and writers has been the guiding principle in the 
preparation of this work. 

The time given to the book in each week- should be 
divided about equally between grammar and composition. 
The importance of the subjects seems to call for at least a 
daily lesson in each, — an ideal that some schools may be 
unable to attain. 

For the courtesy of permitting the use of copyrighted 
selections the authors wish to express their appreciation to 
Charles Scribner's Sons for selections from F. Hopkinson 
Smith, Paul du Chaillu, and Robert Louis Stevenson ; to 
the Century Company for selections from Jacob A. Riis 
and General Grant ; to Houghton, Mifflin and Company 
for the selections and passages from Thomas Bailey Aldrich, 
Charles Dudley Warner, Lucy Larcom, Emerson, Longfel- 
low, Whittier, Holmes, Hawthorne, and Bronson Alcott, 
which are used by permission of and by special arrange- 
ment with this firm, the authorized publishers of the writ- 
ings of these authors; to Harper and Brothers for the poem by 
Kate Putnam Osgood and the letters by Macaulay and Lowell; 
and to the other publishers and authors who are mentioned 
in connection with the selections. Acknowledgment is 
due also to Prof. L. A. Sherman for many suggestions. 



CONTENTS 



PART I. 
I. Grammar. 
The Sentence and its Elements. Words and their Uses 
in the Sentence. pages 

The Sentence (Classified by Use) 7-10 

Subject and Predicate 10-24, 3 1 

Independent Elements 15, 19 

Words in Apposition 20 

The Parts of Speech 25-48 

Modifiers 33 

Phrase Modifiers . 37 

II. Composition. 

Narratives and Letters. Acts that Show Character. 

Punctuation. 

"How to Write" 49 

Letters . 51, 56, 58, 68, 76, 78 

Words to Watch . 54, 63, 71, 77 

Punctuation . 57, 59, 67, 69, 75, 80 

Suggestions in Literature 64 

Telegrams 80 

PART II. 

I. Grammar. 

The Sentence and its Elements (Continued). 

Complements, Phrases, and Clauses. 

Complements 87-96 

The Indirect Object 94 

Infinitives and Participles 96-105 

Phrases and Clauses 106-117 

The Simple Sentence 118 

The Complex Sentence 120 

The Compound Sentence 122-126 

Summary of the Sentence , . 126-130 

II. Composition. 

Acts that Show Feeling. Punctuation. 

Suggestion of Feelings 131-134 

Postal Cards 138, 144 

Words to Watch 138, 147, 159, 164, 165 

Punctuation 141-143, 150-155, 156-159, 165, 166 

Description 161 

5 



6 CONTENTS 

PART III. 
I. Grammar. 
The Parts of Speech. Their Classification, Inflections, 
and Relations. pages 

The Noun 168-200 

The Pronoun 200-2.18 

The Verb 218-266 

The Adjective 267-278, 282 

The Adverb 278-283 

The Preposition 284-287 

The Conjunction 287-290 

Words Variously Used 290-294 

II. Composition. 

Details that Picture. Miscellany. 

Practical Descriptions 296 

Bills and Receipts . 300 

Words to Watch 302, 313 

The Pronoun : Some Dangers 304 

The Letter of Introduction 307 

Note of Invitation 312 

Suggestive Words 3 T 4-3i9 

Persuasive Writing 323, 324 

A Diary 323 

Advertisements 325 

Principles of Composition 327 

Selections from Literature. 

A Kind Act (School Work) . . 50 (Riis) 148 

Wading the Tweed (Taylor) . . 50 A Pleasant Room (Alcott) . . . 160 

Letter (Lowell) 52 The Other Fellow (William Haw- 

A Sudden Shower (Riley) ... 54 ley Smith) 166 

Letter (Macaulay) 56 The Eel Trap 296 

better (Stevenson) 58 Leaving the Old Home (Lucy 

Three Boys and a Dog (School Larcom) ........ 297 

Work) 62 Joyous Days 302 

Oliver Horn(F. Hopkinson Smith) 65 The Den (Alcott) 305 

A Gentleman (Lucy Larcom) . . 74 Snaring Fish (Warner) .... 306 

The Foreign Gentleman (Alcott) 79 A Night Afield (Hamlin Garland) 309 

A Boy's Song (James Hogg) . . 85 Winter (Shakespeare) .... 313 

Heavy Hearts (Alcott) .... 131 A New England Scene (F. Hop- 

Merton's Promise 132 kinson Smith) 314 

The Rescue 135 Seadrift (Aldrich) 318 

Driving Home the Cows (Kate What the Long Night Said (du 

Putnam Osgood) 139 Chaillu) 322 

How I Made an Anchor . . . . 144 The Boy to the Schoolmaster 

The Heroism of John Binns (Edward J. Wheeler) .... 325 

Pictures . 60, 72, 82, 136, 154, 162, 298, 310, 320 

Index 330 



PART I. 



I. GRAMMAR. 

THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. 
WORDS AND THEIR USES IN THE SENTENCE. 



1. THE SENTENCE. 

When we wish to express a thought clearly, we must 
arrange our words so that taken together they form what is 
called a sentence. If we arrange words without relation 
to one another, we express only disconnected ideas ; as, 

Beautiful the on hillside trees. 

These words may be made to convey a meaning by chan- 
ging their order and thus relating them ; as, 
Beautiful trees on the hillside. 

As they are now arranged, these words are related and 
have some meaning ; but they do not express a complete 
thought, and can not properly be called a sentence. The 
question arises, " What about the beautiful trees on the 
hillside ? " To answer this question we must supply a 
predicating word or expression : 

Beautiful trees grow on the hillside ; or, 
Beautiful trees on the hillside were blown down. 

7 



8 GRAMMAR 

The word grow and the words were blown down predi- 
cate, or tell, something about the trees, and thus com- 
pletely express a thought. 

Definition. A Sentence is the complete expression of a thought 
in words. 

Exercise. 

Study the following expressions, and distinguish the five 
that are sentences. Change those that are parts of sentences 
into sentences by supplying appropriate words : 

i. Cows in the pasture. 8. Music in the air. 

2. The bushes growing by the 9. The boys study their lessons. 

river. 10. The boys, studying their les- 

3. Bees are drowsing in the sons. 

clover. 11. Remembrance is sweet. 

4. On the 4th of July. 12. But the sweet face of Lucy 

5. Trying to climb the steep Gray. 

hillside. 13. If you want to be happy you 

6. Industry will enrich. must be good. 

7. Never too late to mend. 14. Well begun half done. 

2. KINDS OF SENTENCES. 

Sentences are used to express three different kinds of 
thoughts. Observe the following sentences and select : 

1. Those that are used to tell something. 

2. Those used to command or request something. 

3. Those used to ask a question. 

t. We have only twenty-six letters in our alphabet. 

2. The Japanese have forty-seven letters. 

3. Do they write as we do? 

4. Come, let us visit a Japanese school. 

5. Notice how they write. 

6. Do they write with pens or pencils? 

7. No, they have brushes much like those we use for water colors. 

8. All men are equal ; there is naught in birth ; 
'Tis Virtue only makes the difference. 



THE SENTENCE 9 

Definitions. A sentence that tells, or declares, something is 
a Declarative Sentence. 

A sentence that commands or requests is an Imperative Sentence. 

A sentence that asks a question is an Interrogative Sentence. 

When a declarative, an imperative, or an interrogative sentence 
is used to express emotion, such as sorrow, surprise, or impa- 
tience, it is called an Exclamatory Sentence; as, 

1. Few, few shall part where many meet / 

2. Woodman, spare that tree / 

3. Where, oh, where was Roderick then / 

Which of these sentences tells something? Which 
commands ? Which asks a question ? Why are they fol- 
lowed by exclamation points ? 

Rules of Capitalization and Punctuation. In writing, the 
first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter 
(Comp. 46, p. 67.) 

The close of a declarative or an imperative sentence is usually 
marked by a period (.)• (Comp. 46.) 

The close of an interrogative sentence is usually marked by an 
interrogation point (?). (Comp. 46.) 

When a sentence is exclamatory it is followed by an exclamation 
point (!). (Comp. 120, pp. 165, 166.) 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Tell whether each of the following sentences is 
declci7'ative, interrogative, or imperative, and give reasons. 
Mention those that are also exclamatory : 

1. There is nothing impossible to industry. 

2. Endeavor to be good, and better still. — Browning. 

3. Earnestness alone makes life eternity. — Carlyle. 

4. Who knows whither the clouds have fled? — Lowell. 

5. Herald of the morn, I greet thee! — Shakespeare. 



IO GRAMMAR 

6. The world globes itself in a drop, of dew. — E?nerson. 

7. Who can direct when all pretend to know ? — Coleridge. 

8. How soon a smile of God can change the world ! — Browning. 

9. He who quells an angry thought is greater than a king. 

10. What mighty contests rise from trivial things ! — Pope. 

11. Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever; 

Do noble things, not dream them, all day long ; 
And so make life, death, and that vast forever, 
One grand, sweet song. — Kingsley. 

12. Where'er the wide old kitchen hearth 

Sends up its smoky curls, 
Who will not thank the kindly earth, 
And bless our farmer girls ! — Whittier, 

Ex. II. Select from another book five declarative, five 
interrogative, five imperative, and five exclamatory sen- 
tences. Tell whether each of tJie exclamatory sentences is 
declarative, imperative, or interrogative in meaning. 



3. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

Two words, at least, are needed in the English language 
to express a thought completely, — one to name something, 
and one to say, or state, something about what is named. 

When we say " Trees grow," we use the word Trees to 
name something, and the word grow to state, or assert, 
something about what is named. If we say " Beautiful 
trees grow on the hillside," we use Beautiful trees to name 
something, and grow on the hillside to assert something 
about what is named. 

Definition. In a sentence the word or group of words naming 
that about which something is asserted, is called the Subject; and 
the word or group of words that asserts (predicates) something of 
the subject, is called the Predicate. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE II 

Note. Strictly speaking, in an interrogative sentence the subject 
names that about which something is asked (not stated), and the 
predicate asks something about that which is named by the subject. 
So in an imperative sentence the predicate co?nmands or requests, 
instead of stating, telling, asserting, or the like. For convenience, 
however, the word assert may be applied to all three kinds of 
sentences. 

The subject and predicate are the two essential, or neces- 
sary, parts of every sentence. 

Note how these parts are illustrated in the following 
sentences . 

i. Plants [\ brealhe. 

2. Sfionges [\ are animals. 

3. Penn j\ founded Pennsylvania. 

4. The busy j\ have no time for tears. 

5. Push and pluck (\ will work wonders. 

6. To do right A is w r duty. 

The separation of a sentence into its parts, or elements, 
according to their use is called Analysis. 

Illustrating the analysis of a sentence by means of some 
plan, or drawing, is called Diagramming. 

Oral Analysis. — Sentence. Why? Kind of sentence. Why? 
Subject. Why? Predicate. Why? 

Model. — A blade of grass \ is a mystery. This is a sentence, be- 
cause it is the complete expression of a thought. It is a declarative 
sentence because it declares, or tells, something. A blade of grass is 
the subject, because it names that about which something is asserted ; 
is a mystery is the predicate, because it tells what is asserted of the 
subject. 

To the Teacher. When the pupil has learned to recognize the sentence, 
and is able to distinguish readily its parts, a formal analysis in which every child 
follows the same order, should not be insisted on. Such work is apt to become 
mechanical. Be satisfied at all times if a pupil shows that he understands clearly 
and expresses his understanding intelligently. 



12 GRAMMAR 



Exercise. 



Analyze the following declarative sentences, and then 
diagram each according to the illustrations given : 

i. Birds fly. 

2. Some birds are songsters. 

3. Humming birds are very tiny. 

4. Birds that sing are used as pets. 

5. Teaching parrots is very interesting. 

6. Shallow waters make most noise. 

7. Mountain sheep go in flocks. 

8. A good book is the best teacher. 

9. To choose time is to save time. 

10. The truest self-respect is not to think of self. 

11. Our good deeds live after us. 

12. The path of industry is the path to success. 

13. Seconds are the gold dust of time. 

14. The first step towards greatness is honesty. 

15. The evil that men do lives after them. 

16. Every difficulty yields to the enterprising. 

17. The mold of a man's fortune is in his own hands. 



4. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE OF INTERROGATIVE 
SENTENCES. 

An interrogative sentence is a modified form of the de- 
clarative sentence, and, to determine its subject and predi- 
cate, it is usually necessary to change the form to that of 
the declarative ; as, 

Has every pupil a book ? 

every pupil A Has a book 

Did Longfellow write " Excelsior " f 

Longfellow ^ Did write Excelsior 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 13 

Exercise. 

Change the following interrogative sentences, as nearly 
as possible, to the declarative form ; tell the subject and 
the predicate of each ; and place each in a diagram as in 
the preceding exercise : 

1. Do sponges grow ? 

2. Did Columbus discover America ? 

3. When did Columbus discover America? 

4. Are not the autumn leaves beautiful ? 

5. How deep is the river? 

6. Did you study your lesson? 

7. Have you read " Lives of the Hunted " ? 

8. Why does a leaf fall face downward ? 
9. 1 Who can paint like nature ? 

10. How many were present? 

11. Which of the two rivers is the longer? 



5. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE OF IMPERATIVE AND 
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. 

Every sentence has a subject and a predicate ; but in 
an imperative sentence the subject is usually omitted be- 
cause it represents the person or persons spoken to, and it 
is unnecessary to name a subject of this kind ; as, 

1. {You) Behold. 2. Don't {you) do that. 

Exercise. 

In the following numbered sentences supply the subjects 
that are omitted, and then diagram to show the subject 
and the predicate, as in the preceding lessons. 

1 Some interrogative sentences have the arrangement of declarative sentences. 
This is true when an interrogative word {who, which, how, etc.) is used as the 
subject or as a modifier of the subject. 



14 GRAMMAR 

Note. That any part of a sentence has been supplied may be 
indicated in the diagram by inclosing in parentheses ( ) the word 
or words supplied ; as, 

{you) A Don't do that 

1. Hear me for my cause. 

2. Do not weary of well doing. 

3. Give us this day our daily bread. 

4. Look before you leap. 

5. Please excuse me. 

6. You study your lesson. 

7. Don't you accept it. 

8. Ask yourself often, " Is my action right? " 

9. Do the duty that lies nearest thee. 

The directions for determining the subject and predi- 
cate of declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences 
apply to the exclamatory sentence according to the form 
in which the exclamation is expressed. 



Declarative Form: 



Here we are at last ! 

we hare Here at last 



. „ Was ever poet so trusted before / 

Interrogative Form: ..,.„. r , , , , 

poeth Was ever so trusted before 



Imperative Form: 



Don't you touch that wire! 

you l\ Don't touch that wire 



6. INCOMPLETE EXPRESSIONS OF THOUGHT. 

A single word that is neither the subject nor the predi- 
cate word, may convey a thought without giving it complete 
expression. In answer to the question " Are you happy ? " 
the single word Yes conveys the same thought that is ex- 
pressed by the sentence " I am happy." Given as a com- 



INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 15 

mand, the word Attention is equivalent to a sentence, " You 
give attention." The word Alas is equivalent to some 
such statement as " It is sad " or " I am sorry." Such 
words, when used in exclamation to express feeling or 
emotion, are called Interjections. 

Why may we not call them sentences? What are the necessary 
parts of every sentence? In what kind of sentence may one of these 
parts be omitted? Why is the subject of an imperative sentence 
usually omitted? 

\ 

In some places Quack-quack ! and Bow-wow ! may be 
used very satisfactorily to express thoughts ; but these 
words are not sentences. They are merely interjections 
which express thoughts imperfectly or incompletely. Max 
Miiller is doubtful as to whether they even deserve the 
name of language. 

Farrar, in his essay on " The Origin of Language," tells of an Eng- 
lishman in China who, seeing a dish placed before him about which 
he felt suspicious, and wishing to know whether it was duck, said, 
with an interrogative accent, " Quack-quack? " He received the clear 
and straightforward answer " Bow-wow ! " 

A word is often used as a term of address, as in the 
sentence " Bertha, study your lesson." Bertha indicates 
who is addressed — "I am speaking to Bertha ; (you) study 
your lesson." 

When a term of address is attached to a sentence it is 
set off by a comma or by an exclamation point, and is 
considered as independent. 

Rule of Punctuation. Every independent element should be 
separated from, the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas, un- 
less exclamatory; in that case, by an exclamation point. (Comp. 
xoi, 120, pp. 141, 165, 166.) 



l6 GRAMMAR 

Bertha, 

{you) A study your lesson. 

Alas! 

the way f\ is weariso7ne and long. 

Exercise. 

Which of the following expressions are sentences, and 
why? Diagram each sentence, placing the independent 
words as in the examples just given. Explain the use of 
each punctuation mark : 

i. Edward, you are wanted. 

2. Old year, you must not die. 

3. Hurrah ! Farewell ! 

4. Woodman, (you) spare that tree! 

5. You blocks ! You stones ! You hard hearts ! 

6. Fair Cousin ! Thy life is joyous yet. 

7. O gallant captain ! wilt thou not show us pity? 

8. Rule by patience, Laughing Water. 

9. My kingdom for a horse ! 

10. Close not, O Freedom, thy lids in slumber. 

11. Oh, how happy we are ! 

12. Dear me \ What shall I do? 

13. But the magic flute? Ah, yes! The magic flute. 

14. Alas! My joys have fled. 

15. Pshaw ! You are dreaming. 

16. O Life! how pleasant is thy morning! 

17. How short, alas, is life ! 

18. O my countrymen ! When will you resent this treachery ? 



7. REVIEW. 

In determining the subject and the predicate, we have 
learned that the position of these parts in the sentence 
differs according to the kind of sentence. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 17 

1. In the declarative sentence the subject usually precedes the 
predicate. This is called the Natural Order. 

Subject. Predicate. 

Every pwpil /\ has read " Hiawatha." 

2. In the interrogative sentence the subject usually follows either 
the predicate or some part of it: 

Part of Predicate. Subject. Rest of Predicate. 

Has every pupil read " Hiawatha " t 

3. In the imperative sentence the subject is generally omitted. 
When expressed, in literature, it often follows part of the predicate: 



Part of Predicate. 


Subject. 


Rest of Predicate. 


Praise 


ye 

Exercise. 


the Lord. 



Select from your reader two sentences to illustrate the 
position of the subject and of the predicate in each of tJie 
different kinds of sentences. 

To the Teacher. — Pupils who have not studied the Elementary Book of 
this series may need additional practice in the analysis of sentences in their natural 
order before taking up the next lesson. Each teacher knows the needs of her class, 
and should give additional drill when necessary. 

8. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE OUT OF NATURAL ORDER. 

In some declarative sentences the predicate, or some 
part of it, precedes the subject. This occurs when we 
wish to emphasize a certain part of the sentence. 

Observe the arrangement of the subject and predicate 
in the following declarative sentences : 

Predicate. Subject. 

i. There stands the man. 

STEPS ENG. — 2. 



Part of Pred. 


Subj. 


Rest of Pred. 


Brightly glow 


the stars 


at night. 



18 



Change the arrangement of these sentences to their 
natural order and note the different effect : 

i. The man stands there. 

2. The stars glow brightly at night. 

In such sentences we may determine the subject by 
putting who or what before the predicate to form a ques- 
tion ; as in the first sentence above, " Who stands there ? " 
The answer to the question thus formed is the -subject. 

Exercise. 

Determine the subject and the predicate of the following 
sentences, arrange them in tJieir natural order, and diagram : 

i. From the rocks twinkled a light. 

2. Silently blossomed the lovely stars. 

3. Unto the pure all things are pure. 

4. Deep in the forest hides the arbutus. 

5. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 

6. On a tree near by sat a robin. 

7. Up spake our own little Mabel. 

8. No more was seen the fairy isle. 

9. Little by little all tasks are done. 

10. In the cottage yonder I was born. 

11. By the wayside, on a mossy stone, sat a hoary pilgrim. 

12. Again has come the beautiful springtime. 

13. Around my ivied porch shall spring each fragrant flower that 
drinks the dew. 

14. Between the house and the river grows a large elm. 

15. In the dead of night, under the cover of a truce, advanced the 
enemy. 

16. By the shores of Gitche Gumee, 
By the shining Big-Sea-Water, 
Stood the wigwam of Nokomis. 



THE EXPLETIVE 19 

9. INTRODUCTORY WORDS. 

When the predicate in a declarative sentence is placed 
before the subject for the purpose of emphasis, it is often 
preceded by the word there as an introductory word ; as, 
There is a time for all things. 

The word tJiere is often thus used to introduce a sen- 
tence. In such cases it is a word of euphony. Omit it 
and notice how incomplete the sentence sounds. 

When used in this manner tJiere is commonly called an 
Expletive — a term that means to fill out. In diagram- 
ming, it should be set apart from the rest of the sentence ; 
as, 

There 

a time for all things A is 

Caution. The word there is not always an expletive when it 
introduces a sentence. Note its use in each of the following sen- 
tences : 

1. There (expletive) is no royal road. 

There 

no royal road A is 



2. There (part of predicate) he saw a narrow road, 
he A saw a narrow road There 

Exercise. 

Analyze the following sentences to determine the sub- 
ject and the predicate, and then diagram them : 

1. There is nobility in truth. 

2. There is no sorrow there. 

3. There are two fives in ten. 

4. There we discovered the way. 

5. There he saw a stranger standing. 



20 GRAMMAR 

6. There's no slipping up hill. — Eliot. 

7. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. — Byron. 

8. There was a manhood in his look. — /. Taylor. 

9. There never was a good war. — Franklin. 

10. There's no wound deeper than a pen can give. — J. Taylor, 

n. There is no new thing under the sun. — Bible. 



10. WORDS IN APPOSITION. 

When the word it is used as the subject of a sentence, 
a group of words often follows the predicate - to explain 
what is meant by the subject. These words are not a 
part of the predicate ; they belong to the subject. As, 

1. It is noble to seek the truth. 

It = to seek the truth A is noble 

2. It is true that plants breathe. 

It = that plants breathe A is true 

In the first of these sentences, the words to seek the 
truth explain or make known the idea represented by the 
word it, which merely introduces the sentence and fills 
the office of subject without expressing what the subject 
means. Words used to explain some other word are said 
to be in Apposition. Apposition means placed by the 
side of. 

In the diagram, words that are in apposition should be 
placed by the side of the words they explain, and con- 
nected with them by an equality sign. 

Rule of Punctuation. When an appositive expression fol- 
lows the word it explains, it is generally set off by commas; as, 

Gra7n?nar, or the science of language, treats of the laws of speech. 
Daniel Boone, the pioneer, was one of the founders of Kentucky, 
(Comp. 107, pp. 150-152.) 



WORDS IN APPOSITION 21 

Exercise. 

Diagram the following sentences, and observe how they 
are punctuated : 

i. It is wrong to tell a lie. 

2. It is true that lost time is never found again. 

3. It is not good to wake a sleeping hound. — Chaucer. 

4. It is a well known fact that sponges are animals. 

5. It's good to be merry and wise. 

6. It's good to be honest and true. 

7. It was my privilege to be present. 

8. It is traitorous to desert one's flag. 

9. It was his desire to act the part of a gentleman. 

10. It has been finely said that lost time is never found again. 

11. Golden beams, the little children of the sun, came to brighten 
the earth. 

12. Elmwood, the home of Lowell, is in Cambridge. 

13. Mabel, his little daughter, came quietly into the room. 

14. Lucy Larcom, the author of many charming stories for chil- 
dren, lived in Beverly. 

15. She was a personal friend of Whittier, the Quaker poet of 
Amesbury. 

16. By Whittier the statement was made that simple duty hath no 
place for fear. 



11. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE — COMPOUND. 

Two or more subjects are often connected and used with 
one and the same predicate ; as, 

{Rice grows in a warm cli?nate. 
\ Cotton grows in a war7n clij?iate. 

Subjects Connected. 
2. Rice a7id cotton [\ grow in a warm cli?nate. 

Definition. Two or more connected subjects having the same 
predicate form a Compound Subject. 



22 GRAMMAR 

Two or more predicates are often connected and used 
with the same subject ; as, 

Subject. Connected Predicates. 
Hope [\ ebbs and flows. 

Definition. Two or more connected predicates having the 
same subject form a Compound Predicate. 

Sometimes a sentence has both a compound subject and 
a compound predicate ; as, 

Compound Subject. Compound Predicate. 
Hill and dal e A blossom and sparkle. . 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Construct or select from your reader five sentences 
with compound subjects, three with compound predicates, 
and two in which both subject and predicate are compound, 

Ex. II. Diagram each se7itence to show the subject and 
the predicate. 

12. REVIEW. 

To the Teacher. The pupil should now be able to recognize the sentence, 
and to distinguish its logical elements of subject and predicate without much 
difficulty. This power rather than the mastery of definitions should be the test of 
the pupil's fitness to proceed further. The following sentences have been arranged 
to give additional practice. 

Exercise. Select tJie subject and the predicate of each 
of the following sentences : 

i. Friend and foe applauded the speaker. 

2. Civility costs nothing and buys everything. 

3. A listening ear, a silent tongue, and a faithful heart are three 
precious jewels. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 23 

4. The poetry of earth is never dead. — Keats. 

5. Come quickly, gentle Spring. — Tho7nson. 

6. Behind the clouds is the sun still shining. — Lo7igfellow. 

7. Great was the joy in every breast. — Browning. 

8. For myself, in our Federal relations, I know but one section, 
one union, one flag, one government. — D. Dickinson. 

9. The sky was sweet with prayer — Whittier. 
10. It was impossible to hear his voice. 

n. It is divine to act well. — Mann. 

12. Few and precious are the words of wisdom. — Tupper. 

13. Where do you live, my brave little man ? 

14. It requires energy to make the most of life. 

15. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. — Gray. 

16. Up soared the lark into the air. — Longfellow. 

17. To the darkest sorrow there comes a morrow. — Trowbi'idge. 

18. Let honesty and industry be your constant companions. 

19. The vine still clings to the mouldering wall. — Longfellow. 

20. That our good deeds live after us is a true saying. 

21. A true friend is one of the precious gifts of Heaven. 

22. Pleasures are like poppies spread. — Burns. 

23. Morn with rosy hands unbarred the gates of light. — Milton. 

24. In the core of one pearl are all the shade and shine of 
the sea. 

25. Wilful waste brings woeful want. 

26. The wind and waves are always on the side of the ablest 
navigators. — Gibbon. 

27. To use books rightly is to go to them for help. — Ruskin. 

28. There is a tide in the affairs of men. — Shakespeare. 

29. Upon the valley's lap the dewy morning throws a thousand 
pearly drops. 

30. Let us twine each thread of our country's flag about our heart 
strings. — foseph Holt. 

31. Our country! 'tis a glorious land. — Wm. Peabody. 

32. Only a virtuous people can become truly great and nobly 
free. 

33. Lincoln stands forth in the page of history, unique in his 
character and majestic in his individuality. Like Milton's angel, he 
was an original conception. He was raised up for his times. He 
was a leader of leaders. By instinct the common heart trusted 
him. 



24 GRAMMAR 

He was of the people and for the people. He had been poor and 
laborious. Greatness did not change the tone of his spirit. It did 
not lessen the sympathies of his nature. His character was strangely 
symmetrical. He was temperate without austerity. His love of justice 
was only equaled by his delight in compassion. His regard for per- 
sonal honor was only excelled by love of country. His self-abnegation 
found its highest expression in the public good. His integrity was 
never questioned. His honesty was above suspicion. He was more 
solid than brilliant. His judgment dominated his imagination. His 
ambition was subject to his modesty. His love of justice held the 
mastery over all personal consideration. Not excepting Washington, 
Lincoln is the fullest representative American in our national annals. 
He had touched every round in the human ladder. He illustrated 
the possibilities of our citizenship. We are not ashamed of his 
humble origin. We are proud of his greatness. 

— From an Address by Bishop Newman. 



Test Questions, i. In expressing our thoughts, does it make 
any difference in what order we speak or write our words ? 2. Does 
a group of words, if properly arranged, always make a sentence? 
3. How can you determine whether or not a group of words is a 
sentence? 4. What do we call sentences that make statements? 
5. Those that give commands ? 6. Those that ask questions? 
7. Give an example of each kind. 8. When is a sentence exclama- 
tory? 9. How do the tones in which people speak help you to 
understand them? 10. In writing, what helps us to understand 
sentences? 11. Give orally a sentence in the form of a question 
that would need an exclamation point after it. 12. Give four rules 
for beginning and closing sentences in writing. 13. What are the 
two essential parts of every sentence ? 14. In what kind of sentence 
is one of these parts frequently omitted? 15. Why? 16. Which 
part of a sentence is called the subject? 17. Why is the other part 
called the predicate? 18. What is meant by an incomplete expres- 
sion of thought? 19. How do we punctuate a word used in a sen- 
tence as a term of address? 20. What is the usual order of the 
subject and the predicate in the different kinds of sentences? 
21. What is a word called when used merely for euphony in the 
sentence? 22. When used in exclamation? 23. What does the 
word apposition mean? 24. When is a word in apposition with 
another ? 25. Give the rule for punctuating appositives. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 25 

13. THE PARTS OF SPEECH, 

We have learned that a sentence is the complete expres- 
sion of a thought in words, and that it consists of two 
parts, the subject and the predicate. We now come to 
consider the words used in forming the subject and the 
predicate, and in so doing we take up the study of 
grammar proper. 

Grammar shows how words are put together in sen- 
tences , how they change their forms, and why certain 
forms and not others are correct. 

In studying words and their different forms we first 
divide them into classes, or families, according to their 
various uses in the sentence. 

Definition. The classes into which words are divided accord- 
ing to their uses in the sentence are called Parts of Speech. 



14. THE NOUN. 

One of the largest and most important classes of words 
is made up of names. It would be impossible to express 
our thoughts unless we had names for the things about 
which we wish to speak or to write. 

Select in the following sentences the words that are 
used as names : 

1. Flowers bloom. 4. Running invigorates. 

2. Beauty charms. 5. George Washington was honored. 

3. Health has gone. 6. Mount Vernon attracts thousands. 

Notice that these names represent : 



26 GRAMMAR 

i. Things that occupy space, as a person, a place, or a 
thing ; as, George Washington (person) ; Mount Vernon 
(place) ; flowers (thing). 

2. Things that do not occupy space, as a quality, a con- 
dition, or an action ; as, beauty (a quality) ; health (a 
condition) ; running (an action). 

These names are called Nouns. 

Definition. A Noun is the part of speech used as the name of 
something. 

Remark. It is the name, and not the thing itself, that is a noun. 
A boy is not a noun, but the word boy is. 



15. KINDS OF NOUNS. 

Write the following nouns in two columns ; the first 
column to contain all those naming things that occupy 
space ; the second column, all those naming things that 
do not occupy space : 

House, hope, book, truth, health, kindness, king, carpenter, New 
York, cruelty, Longfellow, city, poverty, child, childhood, man, man- 
hood, sun, brightness, Charter Oak, smoke, sky, virtue, sickness, 
color, fashion, Schenley Park, perseverance, industry, laughter, walk- 
ing, Henry, Monday, 1 October, 1492. 

These columns represent two different kinds of nouns : 
The nouns in the first column name things that exist in 
space, and are called Concrete Nouns ; those in the second 
column name things that do not occupy space, and are 
called Abstract Nouns. 

1 Occupies space of time. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 27 

Definitions. A Concrete Noun is the name of a person, place, or 
thing that exists in space. 

An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, condition, or action 
— something that does not occupy space. 

To the Teacher. This distinction of nouns as concrete and abstract is 
important not so much on account of its grammatical significance as for the help 
it gives the pupil to recognize the noun, — not only as the name of a person, place, 
or thing, but as the name of everything that has existence or being, whether that 
being is recognized through the senses or by mental abstraction. 

If pupils can comprehend it, an abstract noun may be defined as the name 
of a quality, condition, or action withdrawn or abstracted in thought from the ob- 
ject to which it belongs. 



Exercise. 

Make a list of the nouns in the following sentences, and 
tell whether they are concrete or abstract : 

1. The oriole uses wool, hair, and flax for her nest, and shapes it 
like a purse. 

2. There is a mountain in Arcadia where the four winds prepare 
to take breath for their courses on the earth, whence force shall re- 
sound on force, and softness be answered by softness. — Greek Oracle. 

3. All mischief comes from idleness : — hence gambling, luxury, 
dissipation, ignorance, calumny, envy, and forgetf ulness of God. 

— Pascal. 

4. Until the appearance of the steamboat in 181 2, the merchants 
of Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Louisville, and a host of other towns in the 
interior bought the produce of the Western settlers, and floating it 
down the Ohio and the Mississippi sold it at New Orleans for cash, 
went round to the east coast by sea, and with the money purchased 
goods at Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, and carried them 
over the mountains to the West. — John Bach Mc Master, 



16. THE PRONOUN. 

It often becomes necessary to refer to the same person 
or thing more than once in a sentence ; as, 



28 GRAMMAR 

i. Alexander the Great wept because Alexander the Great could 
find 7io more worlds to conquer. 

2. Flowers bloo?n, and shed flowers^ fragrance on the air. 

This monotonous repetition of names makes the sentence 
cumbersome and inelegant. It may be avoided by writing 
the sentences as follows : 

1 . A lexander the Great wept because he could find no more worlds 
to conquer. 

2. Flowers bloom, and shed 'their fragrance on the air. 

What nouns have been left out of these sentences ? 
What words are used instead of them ? Such words are 
called Pronouns (for or instead of nouns). 

Definition. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

The principal pronouns are: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, my, 
your, his, her, its, our, their, me, us, him, them, who, whose, 
whom, which, that, what. 

These little words are used very frequently, and they 
are often used incorrectly. You will learn their correct 
uses in subsequent lessons. 



Exercise. 

Note the indicated pronouns, and tell for what noun 
each is used : 

i. Animals are such agreeable friends — they ask no questions, 
they pass no criticisms. — George Eliot. 

2. A man may well bring a horse to the water, 
But he can not make him drink without he will. 

— John Heywood. 

3. Virtue best loves those children that she beats. — Herrick. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 29 

4. What is wealth to the man who can't use it to better himself 
and his fellow man ? 

5. Come to me, 1 O ye children, 

For I hear you at your play. — Longfellow. 

6. Be England what she will, 

With all her faults she is my country still. — Churchill. 

7. Be wiser than other people if you can ; but do not tell them 
so. — Lord Chesterfield. 

8. A sensitive plant in a garden grew, 

And the young winds fed it with silvery dew, 
And it opened its fanlike leaves to the light, 
And closed them beneath the kisses of night. — Shelley, 

9. I doubt if he who lolls his head 
Where idleness and plenty meet, 
Enjoys his pillow or his bread 

As those who earn the meals they eat. 

Definition. The word, or group of words, for which a pronoun 
Stands is called its Antecedent. 

Exercise. 

Turn to page 131, select all the pronouns in the selection 
"Heavy Hearts" and tell the antecedent of each. 



17. SUBSTANTIVES. 

In addition to pronouns, other words, and frequently 
groups of words, perform the office of nouns. It is there- 
fore convenient to use a term that can be applied to every 
expression used as a noun. The term Substantive is 
properly applied to such expressions. 

Definition. A Substantive is a noun, or any word or group of 
words used as a noun. 

1 Refers to the speaker. 



30 GRAMMAR 

Exercise. 

The substantives are indicated in the following sentences. 
Tell of each zvhether it is a notin, a pronoun, or a group of 
words used as a noun : 

i. God has lent us the earth for our life. — Ruskin. 

2. To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual means of 
preserving peace. — Washington. 

3. I am an expansionist. I am glad we have acquired the islands 
we have acquired. I am not afraid of the responsibilities which we 
have acquired ; but neither am I blind to how heavy those responsi- 
bilities are. — Roosevelt. 



18. THE VERB. 

Observe again the sentences given to illustrate nouns 
(Gr. 14). The word, or the group of words, used with 
each of the nouns asserts, or tells, something about that 
which is named by the noun, 

Flowers bloom. Beauty charms. Health has gone. George 
Washington was honored. 

Definition. The part of speech used to make an assertion is a 
Verb. 

Verb is from the Latin verbum, which means the word. 
This part of speech is so named because of its supreme 
importance. No sentence can be formed without a verb. 

The noun, the pronoun, and the verb comprise by far 
the greater part of the words in our language. Being used 
as the chief words in forming the subject and predicate, 
they are the principal parts of speech in the sentence. 
The pronoun merejy takes the place of the noun. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 31 

Exercise. 
Point out the verbs : 

1. Silence gives consent. — Goldsmith. 

2. Slow and steady wins the race. — Lloyd. 

3. Small pitchers have wide ears. — Heywood. 

4. The path of duty leads to happiness. — Southey. 

5. The world exists for the education of each man. — Emerson. 

6. The wicked flee when no man pursueth. — Bible. 

7. England, with all thy faults, I love thee still. — Cowper. 

8. God bless the noble workingmen, 

Who rear the cities of the plain ; 
Who dig the mines, who build the ships ; 
And drive the commerce of the main ! 

9. The weakest kind of fruit 

Drops earliest to the ground. — Shakespeare. 
10. The bloom of a rose passes quickly away, 

And the pride of a butterfly dies in a day. 



19. GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

Let us examine once more the following sentence : 
Beautiful trees grow on the hillside. 

The entire, or modified, subject of this sentence is Beau- 
tiful trees, and the entire, or modified, predicate is grow on 
the hillside. If we omit the word trees from the subject 
and the word grow from the predicate, do the remaining 
words, Beautiful on the hillside, express a thought or make 
a sentence ? If we omit all but the words trees grow, is 
there a thought expressed ? The word trees and the word 
grow are the two parts of speech in this sentence which, 
taken together, make a statement, and are called the sim- 
ple, or grammatical, subject and predicate ; as, 



32 GRAMMAR 

Modified Subject. Modified Predicate. 
Beautiful trees f\ grow dn the hillside. 

Grammatical Subject. Grammatical Predicate. 
trees f\ grow. 

Remark. Hereafter, when we wish to speak of the grammatical 
subject and grammatical predicate, we shall speak of them simply 
as subject and predicate j and when we wish to speak of them and 
their modifiers, the terms modified subject and modified predicate 
will be used. 

To the Teacher. It should be made clear to pupils that the terms subject 
and predicate are applied to the words themselves, and not to what is represented 
by the words. In the sentence Boys play, the subject of the sentence is the 
word Boys, and the predicate is the word play. The subject of thought, how- 
ever, is the boys themselves, and the thought predicate is the action expressed by 
the word play. 

Exercise. 

Select the subject and the predicate in each of the fol- 
lowing numbered sentences; and tJicn diagram each sentence 
according to the example given below. 

Observe in the diagram that a single part of speech fills the place 
of the subject, and that a single part of speech occupies the place of 
the predicate. The remaining parts of the subject, you will notice, 
are arranged on a vertical line placed under the subject-line and joined 
to it. The same is true of the remaining parts of the predicate : 

A beautiful tree A stands there . tree j\ stands 

beautiful J there 



At 



1 To the Teacher. Sometimes an adjective modifies a noun and another 
modifier together. In the sentence diagrammed above, beautiful modifies tree, 
and A modifies beautiful tree. If preferable, this distinction may be shown 

thus: 

A beautiful tree The old oaken bucket. 

tree bucket 



\beautiful 


Comp. no, Note, p 


oaken 


ki 


old | 


(Gr. ^85, p. 272. 


The\ 
>• 157.) 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 33 

i. The cold wind blows violently. 

2. The beautiful snow falls fast. 

3. The snow-drifts grow rapidly. 

4. Now comes the sport. 

5. Yonder waves the flag triumphantly. 

6. They strolled along carelessly. 

7. The frightened hare ran away. 

8. Softly the evening came. 

9. The children played happily. 
10. The robin sang cheerfully. 

Two or more words may be taken together to form a 
single part of speech ; as, George Washington, a noun ; 
was honored, a verb. 

Exercise. 

Select the verbs in the following sentences, and deter- 
mine those that are made up of two or more words : 

1. She must weep, or she will die. — Tennyson. 

2. The birds are singing in the leafy galleries. 

3. Who can paint like nature ? 

4. Hope may vanish, but can not die. 

5. The day is done, and the darkness falls from the wings of 
night. 

6. The sun has drunk the dew that lay upon the morning grass. 

7. What can not be cured must be endured. 

8. Nature had nursed me in her lap, and I had grown a dark and 
eerie child. 

9. The rain comes when the wind calls. 

10. The fox barks not when he would steal the lamb. 



20. MODIFIERS. 

In diagramming sentences (Gr. 19) you learned that 
certain words are joined to the subject, and others, to the 
predicate. These words are used to modify, or change, 

STEPS ENG. — 3. 



34 GRAMMAR 

the meaning or application of the words to which they are 

joined. 

In the following sentence substitute small for beautiful, 

and in the orchard for there, and note the change in 

meaning : 

A beautiful tree stands there. 

Definition. A Modifier is a word, or a group of words, added 
to another to change the meaning. 

A modifier changes the meaning by limiting (usually narrowing) 
the application of a word. The word trees applies to trees in 
general and means all trees. If we add the modifier beautiful, the 
modified word means only such trees as are beautiful. 



21. ADJECTIVES. 

Refer to the sentences you diagrammed on page 33, and 
select the words that are used to modify the meaning of 
nouns. 

These words are called Adjectives. 

Definition. An Adjective is the part of speech used to modify 
the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 

Consult a dictionary for the derivation and meaning of the word 
adjective. 

Exercise. 

Fill the blanks with appropriate adjectives, and tell 
what each modifies : 

1. clouds gathered. 

2. A heart's worth gold. 

3. A laugh is sunshine in a house. 

4. A son maketh a father. 

5. There is word as fail. 

•6. A stone gathers moss. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 35 



7. Washington, President of 

United States, was born on day of February. 

8. Patience is the remedy for trouble. 

9. How doth bee 

Improve hour, 

And gather honey all day 

From flower. 



22. ADVERBS. 

The class of words joined to the predicate in the sen- 
tences you have diagrammed (Gr. 19) are called 'Adverbs, 
because they are generally used with verbs to modify their 
meaning. 

They are not always used, however, to modify the mean- 
ing of verbs. Sometimes an adverb modifies the meaning 
of another modifier ; as, 

A very beautiful tree stands quite near, 
tree A stands 



beautiful near 



\very ' | quite 

A_ 

In this sentence the adverb very modifies the adjective 
beautiful, and the adverb quite modifies the adverb near. 

Definition. An Adverb is the part of speech used to modify 
the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. 

Exercise. 

Fill blanks with appropriate adverbs^ and tell what eack 
modifies : 

1. Write 

2. Don't read , 



36 GRAMMAR 

3. Speak to the erring. 

4. The earth revolves 



5. What is worth doing at all is worth doing . 

6. Build thee stately mansions, O my soul ! 

7. Though the mills of God grind , yet they grind 

exceeding small. 

8. The world will note, nor remember, what 

we say here ; but it can forget what they did here. 



23. TO RECOGNIZE ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 

An adjective usually modifies by showing what kind, 
which one, or how many ; as, 

What kind of tree ? Beautiful tree. 

Which one of the trees? The first tree. 

How many trees ? Several trees. 

The words beautiful, the, first, and several are adjectives, 
and show what kind, which one, and how many. 

An adverb usually modifies by showing how, when, or 
where ; as, 

The snow falls how ? The snow falls softly. 

The snow falls when? The snow falls now. 

The snow falls where ? The s?iow falls here. 

The words softly, now, and here are adverbs, and show 
how, when, and where the snow falls. 

Exercise. 

In the following tell which of tlie indicated words are 
adjectives and which are adverbs. 

Point out the part of speech that each modifies, and tell 
what it shows ; thus, 

Beautiful snowflakes fall softly. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 3? 

Beautiful is an adjective used to modify the meaning of the 
noun snowflakes by showing what kind of snowflakes. 

Softly is an adverb used to modify the meaning of the verb 
falls by showing how the snow falls. 

1. We often praise the evening clouds, 

And tints so gay and bold, 
But seldom think upon our God, 
Who tinged these clouds with gold. — Sir Walter Scott. 

2. Here delicate snow-stars out of the cloud 

Come floating downward in airy play, 
Like spangles dropped from the glistening crowd 

That whiten by night the milky way ; 
There broader and burlier masses fall ; 

The sullen water buries them all — 

Flake after flake — 

All drowned in the dark and silent lake. 

And some, as on tender wings they glide 

From their chilly birth-cloud, dim and gray, 
Are joined in their fall, and, side by side, 1 
Come clinging along their unsteady way ; 
As friend with friend, or husband with wife, 
Makes hand in hand 1 the passage of life ; 
Each mated flake 
Soon sinks in the dark and silent lake. 

— William Cullen Bryant. 



24. PHRASE MODIFIERS. 

Note the indicated groups of words used as modifiers 
in the numbered sentences, and tell what they modify ; 
thus, 

The flakes of snow sink in the lake. 

Of snow is used as an adjective to modify the meaning of the 
Txown flakes, by telling what kind. 

1 Side by side and hand in hand are used as single adverbs. 



38 GRAMMAR 

In the lake is used as an adverb to modify the meaning of the verb 
sink, by showing where. 

i. The clouds hang over the lake. 6. They sink in the depths of the 

2. Out of the clouds come flakes lake. 

of snow. y. We live in deeds, not years, 

3. They come in airy play. In thoughts, not breaths ; 

4. On tender wings they glide. In feelings, not in figures on a 

5. Some hover awhile in the air. dial. 

Definition. A group of words not containing a predicate verb 
and used as a single part of speech is called a Phrase. 

Exercise. 

Analyze and diagram the following numbered sentences 
acco7-ding to models here given : 

Very soon the deep crimson blush of morning appeared. 

Oral Analysis. First give kind of sentence and point out 
subject and predicate ; then give the modifiers of the subject and 
predicate. Thus: 

This is a declarative sentence ; blush is the subject, and appeared 
is the predicate. 

The subject blush is modified by the adjectives the and crimson 
and by the phrase of ?norning ; and crimson itself is modified by the 
adverb deep. The predicate appeared is modified by the adverb 
soon, and soon is modified by the adverb very. 

blush A appeared 



\deep \ Very 

the 
of \ morning 



1. Soon we came to the lake. 

2. The silvery moon watched over them. 

3. A ray of light shone through the window. 

4. On the mountain-side a sunbeam falls. 

5. Pretty blue violets bloom early in the spring. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 39 

6. Many beautiful lilies are found in Japan. 

7. The birds are singing in the leafy galleries. 

8. Around the garden beds hosts of devouring insects crawl. 

9. Very tall trees grow from acorns. 

10. Strike for the green graves of your sires ! 

11. The fountain of truth will never fail. 

12. Words, without thoughts, never to Heaven go. 

13. In winter the reindeer feeds upon moss. 

14. Potatoes grow well in Peru. 

15. White strawberries grow in Chile. 

16. On the motionless branches of some trees, clusters of autumn 
berries hung. 



25. PREPOSITIONS. 

In diagramming the sentences in the last exercise we 
found that phrases were used as modifiers. Notice also 
the following sentences : 

1. We came to the boat. 

2. The 7noon watched over them. 

Note that these modifying phrases are made up of a 
substantive — a noun or pronoun (boat, a noun; them, a 
pronoun) — and another word used to connect the sub- 
stantive to some other word. 

Omit the word to and note the loss or lack of con- 
nection : We came boat. To links or joins boat to came. 

These connecting words also indicate, or show, a relation 
in sense between the parts of speech they connect. 

Note the different relation of boat to came indicated by 
substituting on for to. 

to the boat, 



We came , 

' on the boat. 



To denotes the place to which we came. 
On denotes the manner of our coming. 



40 GRAMMAR 

Most connective words that show relation are called 
Prepositions. 

The word preposition is from a Latin word meaning 
placed before, and refers to the early use of such words 
before verbs as prefixes ; as, To uphold, inclose, overlook, 
withdraw, forgive, understand. 

Their use as connectives requires them to be placed, for 
the most part, before the substantive with which they are 
used ; as, shafts of sunshine from the west. They may, 
however, come after them ; as, 

Ten thousand men that fishes gnawed 'upon. — Shakespeare, 

fishes A gnawed 

I tip on | that 

The substantive that is used with a preposition is called 
its Object. 

The pronoun that in the above sentence is the object of 
the preposition upon. 

Everything came to her from on high. 

Everything A came 

to | her 



from | on high 



The pronoun her is the object of the preposition to, and 
the substantive phrase on high is the object of the prepo- 
sition from. 

Remark. In this sentence we may supply the word place as an 
object oifrom, and consider high as the object of on. 

Everything A came 

\from | {place) 



on | high 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 41 

Every preposition must have an object. Omit the objects 
of the following prepositions, and note the loss or change 
of meaning : 

1. We should count time by (heart-throbs). 

2. He gave the book to (me). 

3. I shot an arrow into (the air). 

4. A man of (honor) speaks the truth. 

5. The boy fell behind (the house). 1 

6. The child fell down (stairs). 1 

We may determine the object of a preposition by using 

what or whom after the preposition to form a question ; 

as, 

We should count time by what ? By heart-throbs. 
He gave the books to whom ? To me. 

Definition. A Preposition is the part of speech used to join 
a substantive to some other word as a modifier, and to indicate a 
relation between them. 

Exercises. 

Ex, I. Note the prepositions in full-face type in the 
following sentences, determine the object of each, and 
point out the part of speech with which each object is con- 
nected as a modifier: 

1. The wisdom of the wise and the experience of ages may be pre- 
served by quotation. — Disraeli. 

2. It is the people's government, made for the people, by the peo- 
ple, and answerable to the people. — Webster. 

3. A freeman contending for liberty on his own ground is superior 
to any slavish mercenary on earth. — Washington. 

4. Let reverence of the law be breathed by every mother to the 
lisping babe that prattles on her lap; let it be taught in schools, . . . 
preached from pulpits, proclaimed in legislative halls, and enforced in 
courts of justice. — Lincoln. 

1 Some words are used either as prepositions or as adverbs. Behind and 
down are words of this kind. When the object is omitted they become adverbs. 



42 GRAMMAR 

Ex. II. Diagram the following sentences according to 

the example given : 

The early settlers of New York and Pennsylvania traveled on 
horseback and in wagon trains. 



settlers __ A traveled 



early 



The 

New York 



of\ /and 

Pe?tnsylvania 



on | horseback 
/and 
\ in | trains 

| wagon 



i. He pleaded for life and liberty. 

2. Coffee grows in Mexico and Brazil. 

3. People now travel by rail or in automobiles. 

4. In summer and winter the reindeer feeds upon moss and lichens. 

5. Three years she grew in sun and shower. (During three years.) 

6. With mirth and song the halls resound. 



26. CONJUNCTIONS. 

Note how the connective word and is used in the sen- 
tence diagrammed in the preceding lesson. Unlike the 
preposition it does not join two parts of speech so that one 
becomes a modifier of the other. It merely indicates that 
two words, or groups of words, are to be taken together. 
A connective word of this kind is called a Conjunction — 
a word that means joining together. 

When words or phrases are joined by conjunctions they are in the 
same grammatical construction ; that is, they are used as like parts 
of speech in the sentence. 

In the sentence diagrammed in the preceding lesson, New York 
and Pennsylvania are two nouns used alike as modifiers of the 
subject. They are joined together by the conjunction and. On 
horseback and hi wagon trains are two phrases used alike as adverbial 
modifiers and joined together by a conjunction. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 43 

A conjunction may join two separate sentences into one. 

Separate Sentences. Sentences Connected. 

... ' 1.2. Tnou shall build and / will burn. 

2. I will burn. 

3. 4. We may give advice, but we can 

3. We may give advice. not give conduct. 

4. We can not give conduct. 3. 4. We may give advice, if we can 

not give conduct. 

Definition. A Conjunction is the part of speech that joins 
sentences, or connects words or phrases that are in the same gram- 
matical construction. 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. In the following sentences the indicated words 
are conjunctions . Tell what each connects, and note that 
the words and phrases connected are used in the same 
construction : 

1. He quaffed off the wine, and he threw down the cup. 

2. A beautiful and lovely child ran and played beside her. 

3. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

4. Give me liberty, or give me death ! 

5. They sailed around and around the island. 

6. Virtue is an angel, but she is a blind one. 

7. What is liberty without wisdom and without virtue ? 

8. Wild is thy lay, and loud. 

9. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, 
but it can never forget what they did here. 

10. Laws are not masters, but (they are) servants, and we rule them 
if we obey them. 

Ex. II. Tell which of the indicated words in the fol- 
lowing sentences are prepositions, and why. Tell which 
are conjunctions, and why : 



44 GRAMMAR 

i. Do not squander time ; for that is the stuff life is made of. 

2. Cleverness is serviceable for everything, sufficient for nothing. 

3. Wings are for angels, but feet for men. 

4. All but him had fled. 

5. You have done better since the last examination. 

6. Since you refuse to go, I must ask some one else. 



27. INTERJECTIONS. 

There is a small class of words expressive of feeling or 
emotion, which have no grammatical connection with any 
other part of the sentence in which they are used. 

Examine the use of the indicated words, and note the 
kind of feeling expressed in each sentence : 

1. Lo! the birds have flown / (Surprise.) 

2. Hurrah ! the birds have flown ! (Joy.) 

3. Pshaw ! the birds have flown. (Disappointment.) 

4. Behold ! the birds haveflow7i. (Desire to call attention.) 

5. The birds, alas! have flown. (Sorrow.) 



alas 



birds A have flown 
~YThe " 



The indicated words, you observe, are independent ; 
that is, they have no grammatical connection with any 
other part of the sentence. They are added or thrown in, 
as it were, merely to indicate the kind of feeling that the 
sentences are intended to express. From their use, these 
words are called Interjections — a word that means some- 
thing thrown in among other things. 

Definition. An interjection is an exclamatory word or expres- 
sion used independently to indicate feeling or emotion. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 45 

As explained in Grammar 6 (pp. 14, 15), when some 
other part of speech is used as an interjection it may be 
equivalent to a sentence ; as, 

1. Behold ! the sun has risen. 

2. Away ! we must not linger. 

3. Impossible ! it can not be. 

Some authors would complete these expressions, and 
classify the interjections as a verb, an adverb, etc. ; as, 

1. You behold. (Verb.) 

2. We must go away. (Adverb.) 

3. It is impossible. (Adjective.) 

It is probably better, however, to consider them as 
interjections. 

Exercise. 

Select the interjections in the following sentences, men- 
tion those that are generally other parts of speech, and name 
the kind of feeling probably expressed in each sentence : 

1. Hurrah ! the battle's won. 

2. He died, alas ! before the morn. 

3. Hist, Ringan ! seest thou there! 

4. And lo ! the ranks divide. 

5. Strange ! I did not see you. 

6. " Ugh ! Bah ! " cried the fairy godmother. 

7. Oh ! I'm the chief of Ulva's isle. 

8. O master ! what is this I see ! 

9. Ah ! what a shadow is praise ! 

10. But hush ! hark ! a deep sound strikes like a rising knell. 

Strictly speaking, the interjection is not a "part of 
speech," since it is not joined with the other words in a 
sentence, but merely thrown in among them without con- 
nection. For convenience, however, it is included among 
the parts of speech, as is also the expletive (Gr. 9, p. 19). 



4 6 



GRAMMAR 



28. SUMMARY OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

From the preceding lessons it appears that there are 
nine functions, or uses, of words in speech, or discourse, 
and that words are classified accordingly into nine different 
parts of speech, as follows : 



Principal 
Parts of 
Speech. 



Modifiers. 



Connectives. 



Independent 
Expressions. 



i. Noun. — The part of speech used as the name of 
something. 

2. Pronoun. — The part of speech used instead of a 

noun. 

3. Verb. — The part of speech used to make an 

assertion. 

4. Adjective. — The part of speech used to modify 

the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 

5. Adverb. — The part of speech used to modify 

the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an 
adverb. 

f 6. Preposition. — The part of speech used to join a 
substantive to some other word as a modi- 
fier, and to indicate a relation between them. 
. Conjunction. — The part of speech used to join 
two sentences into one, or to connect words or 
phrases that are in the same grammatical con- 
struction. 

(8. Interjection. — The part of speech used independ- 
ently to express feeling or emotion. 
9. Expletive. — The part of speech used inde- 
pendently to give fullness or euphony to a 
sentence. 



These nine parts of speech include all the words of our 
language ; but it does not follow that a word is always 
the same part of speech. The same word may have differ- 
ent uses in the sentence, and hence may become different 
parts of speech according to its use and meaning. 

Notice the different parts of speech Shakespeare has 
made of the word round : 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 47 

1. He wears upon his brow the round (noun) of sovereignty. 

2. I will a round (adjective) unvarnished tale deliver. 

3. The golden metal must round (verb) my brow. 

4. The gold must round (adverb) engirt these brows of mine. 

5. The sun hath gone round (preposition) the orbed earth. 



Exercise. 

Note the words in full-face type, tell the part of speech 
each is, and give a reason for your classification : 

1. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

2. Stone walls do not a prison make. 

3. Trout stay in cool waters. 

4. Stay is a charming word in a friend's vocabulary. 

5. It is an ill wind that blows no good. 

6. Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey. 

7. The aged couple were talking about the past, 

8. Talking is the disease of age. 

9. Some persons age very rapidly. 

10. Let them fear bondage who are slaves to fear. 

11. Deeds survive the doers. 

12. He deeds the property to his son. 

13. The birds nest in the trees. 

14. The bird's nest in the tree contains three blue eggs. 

15. Heaven still guards the right. 

16. Be sure you are right and then go ahead. 

17. He will right the wrongs of the innocent. 

18. And that my soul knoweth right well. 

19. He is an American, and glories in the right of an American citizen. 

20. His years but young, but his experience old. 

21. Quick ! man the lifeboat. 

22. Man wants but little here below, 
Nor wants that little long. 

23. A little rule, a little sway, 

A sunbeam in a winter's day. 



48 GRAMMAR 

29. REVIEW. 

Ex. I. Use each of the following words, first as a verb, 
then as a noun : run ; fish ; blow ; bark ; paint. 

Ex. II. Use each of the following words, first as a verb, 
then as an adjective : clear ; dull ; lean ; tame ; smooth. 

Ex. III. Use each of the following words, first as a 
verb, then as a noun, then as an adjective : black ; dress ; 
iron ; last ; spring. 

Ex. IV. Use each of the following words as two differ- 
ent parts of speech, and tell how you have used them : 
behind ; by ; mine ; still ; only ; there ; for ; rest ; fast. 

Test Questions, i. Into how many classes are all the words of 
our language grouped ? 2. What general name is given to these 
classes? 3. How do we determine what part of speech a word is? 
4. Which class of words do we use as names? 5. Which part of 
speech is used to make an assertion ? 6. Does a part of speech always 
consist of a single word ? 7. Which part of speech must every sen- 
tence contain ? 8. Define the subject and the predicate of a sentence. 
9. What is the modified subject? 10. What is the difference be- 
tween the subject of a sentence and the subject of thought in a sen- 
tence ? 11. Name five concrete nouns. 12. Name five abstract 
nouns. 13. How do concrete and abstract nouns differ? 14. Why 
are pronouns convenient? 15. What is the antecedent of a pro- 
noun? 16. What is a modifier? 17. How does one word modify 
another? 18. What is the difference between an adjective and an 
adverb? 19. How does a preposition show the relation between 
words? 20. What is the object of a preposition ? 21. How may we 
determine the object of a preposition? 22. How do prepositions and 
conjunctions differ? 23. In what are they alike? 24. What must 
be true of words and of phrases that are joined by conjunctions? 
25. Why are interjections and expletives, strictly speaking, not parts 
of speech ? 26. Of what use is each in communicating thought? 



II. COMPOSITION. 

NARRATIVES AND LETTERS. ACTS THAT 
SHOW CHARACTER. PUNCTUATION. 



30. "HOW TO WRITE." 

In the making of a composition, or essay, success is 
possible only when the writer observes a few fundamental 
principles. A brief statement of these principles follows. 
After writing a composition, a pupil should regularly turn 
to this page and ask himself whether he has observed 
them : 

Choose a Familiar Subject, one from your own life. 

Know What You Want to Say. 1 This requires thinking. 

Say It. 

Use Your Own Language. Not " bookish language." 

Leave Out All Fine Passages. 

A Short Word is Better Than a Long One. 

The Fewer Words the Better. 

Cut It to Pieces : that is, correct and revise freely. 



1 This principle is taken from "How to Write," in Doctor Hale's volume 
" How to Do It," as are the principles that follow. Teachers will do well to read 
and discuss Dr. Hale's chapter with their classes. The volume is published by 
Little, Brown, & Co., Boston. 

STEPS ENG. — 4. 49 



50 COMPOSITION 



31. A KIND ACT. 

One morning when I was at the store with my mamma, I saw a 
little boy with curly yellow hair stumble and fall on his face. He 
lay on the sidewalk crying very loud. Then a girl carrying a pretty 
market basket hurried up to him. She picked up the crying child 
and began to comfort him. In a moment she put him down, took her 
basket, and led him into the store where we were. She bought some 
candy for him, and then with her handkerchief wiped the tears and 
dirt from his cheeks. Soon he had forgotten his fall, and ran laugh- 
ing out of the store. — School Work. 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Do you like or dislike this girl? Why? What helps to 
give a clear picture of her? In the first sentence what helps to make 
you see the little boy? What helps to picture him later? Why did 
the child run out laughing? 



Ex. II. You have seen or taken part in an act showing kindness 
or cruelty to a child or to an animal. Tell of it, and later write an 
account of it. 



32. WADING THE TWEED. 

We went down a lane to the banks of the swift stream, but, find- 
ing no ferry, B and I, as it looked very shallow, thought we 

might save a long walk by wading across. F preferred hunting 

for a boat. 

We two set out together with our knapsacks on our backs and our 
boots in our hands. The current was ice-cold and very swift, and, as 
the bed was covered with loose stones, it required the greatest care 
to stand upright. Looking at the bottom through the rapid water, 
made my head so giddy I was forced to stop and shut my eyes. My 
friend, who had firmer nerves, went plunging on to a deeper and 
swifter part, where the strength of the current made him stagger very 
unpleasantly. I called to him to return ; the next thing I saw, he 
gave a plunge and went down to the shoulder in the cold flood. 
While he was struggling, with a frightened expression of face, to re- 



ACTS THAT SHOW CHARACTER 5 1 

cover his footing, I leaned on my staff and laughed, till I was on the 
point of falling also. 

To crown our mortification, F had found a ferry a few yards 

higher up and was on the opposite shore watching us wade back 
again, my friend with dripping clothes and boots full of water. I 
could not forgive the pretty Scotch damsel who rowed us across, the 
mischievous lurking smile which told that she too had witnessed the 
adventure. — Bayard Taylor in " Views Afoot.'''' 

Exercise. 1 

Tell of an experience of your own about the water — wading, 
swimming, fishing, boating, or riding on a log or raft ; tell about a 
flood ; tell about skating or sliding. 

Write two or three paragraphs about the same subject. ' Use short 
sentences, and about the same words you used in telling of it. 



33. THE FRIENDLY LETTER. 

The most interesting letters are those full of the little 
details that make to-day different from yesterday and that 
suggest the whole life of the writer. To tell of many of 
these suggestive little acts and incidents is to write a letter 
that will be read with delight. 

Read the following letter, adapted from one 2 written by 
a lad of eight or nine, a lad who became one of the most 
famous authors of our country. James Russell Lowell 
wrote "The Vision of Sir Launfal" and many other 
beautiful poems, as well as several volumes of delightful 
essays. 

1 When several subjects are mentioned under an exercise, as a rule it will be 
wise to let each boy and girl choose one and write of it only. Different subjects 
are suggested in order that every pupil may find one within his own experience. 

2 From Volume I. of " Letters of James Russell Lowell," by Charles Eliot 
Norton. Copyright, 1893, by Harper and Brothers. 



52 COMPOSITION 

Nov. 2, 1828. 

My dear Brother : — I am going to tell you melancholy news. I 
have the ague together with a gumbile. I presume you know that 
September has a lame leg, but he grows better every day and now is 
very well but still limps a little. We have a new scholar from Round 
Hill. His name is Hooper. . . . 

I am going to have a new suit of blue broadcloth clothes to wear 
every day and to play in. Mother tells me that I may have any sort 
of buttons I choose. I have not done anything to the hut, but if 
you wish I will. I am now very happy ; but I should be more so if 
you were here. I hope you will answer my letter. If you do not I 
shall write you no more letters. . . . Mother has given me three 
volumes of " Tales of a Grandfather." Farewell. 

Yours truly, 

James R. Lowell. 

Having read this letter you wish to know the place at 
which it was written, but there is nothing to tell you. In 
omitting this item the young writer made a mistake. Be- 
fore the date of his letter he should have put the name of 
the place at which it was written. The " heading " then 
would have read thus : 

Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 2, 1828. 

We always wish to know in what place a letter was 
written, when it was written, and by whom it was written. 
In all the letters that you write be sure to make known 
each of these facts. 

Exercise. 

Are the sentences in this letter easily understood ? Do you think 
they are long or short? When talking, do boys and girls as a rule 
use long or short sentences? How many words are in the longest 
sentence in the letter ? Does the writer mention to his brother the 
same things he would mention if he were talking to him? Are they 
said in nearly the same language he would use if talking, or are they 
said in different language? What does he mean by gumbile? 
What word should he have used? Forms thus corrupted by care- 
lessness or ignorance should be avoided. 



LETTERS 53 

What is the punctuation after My dear Brother? What is the 
punctuation after each of the words in the heading? What is the 
punctuation after Yours truly? In your own letters use exactly 
the same punctuation. 



34. RULES FOR COMPOSITION. 

When talking, both young people and old, as a rule, use 
short sentences. In writing, the same principle should 
be observed. So, too, in written composition practically 
the same language should be used as is used in spoken 
composition. This of course makes it necessary for boys 
and girls to form the habit of speaking accurately and 
clearly. 

From the facts suggested above we may draw the fol- 
lowing rules : 

Write as you speak. This means, of course, to use short sentences 
and simple words ; not to use slang, incorrect expressions, etc. 

Seldom write a sentence containing more than thirty words or 
more than two statements joined by and. 

Avoid corrupt forms of words, as well as inelegant and incorrect 
expressions. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Discuss in class a number of words and expressions that 
your teacher will tell you are often incorrectly used by you. 



Ex. II. Write a letter to a relative or friend, telling of events 
that have happened at home and in your vicinity during the past 
week. Tell of real events, the ones that have been of especial in- 
terest to you. Use the language you would use in talking to the 
person to whom you are writing. Avoid long sentences. Punctuate 
properly. 

Keep all letters and compositions that you write, and occasionally 
examine them for undetected errors. 



54 COMPOSITION 

35. WORDS TO WATCH. 

Besides using incorrect forms of words, careless speakers 
and writers often use words in meanings not approved by 
the majority of educated people. From time to time such 
words will be introduced under the above title. 

Mad means affected in mind, insane. 

Angry means irritated, annoyed, provoked, enraged, wrath/til (fol- 
lowed by with before the name of a person and at before the name of 
of a thing). 

Exercise. 

Insert the proper word : 

I'm you, and I'll not play with you any 

more ! That man was because I went into his yard ! 

An asylum for the insane is sometimes called a house. John 

became and so I came home. He said that the dog was 



He is angry me for taking his sled. He is angry 

what I did. He said that he was not angry John 



but was angry his actions. 

Warning. Be careful not to say that a boy " got mad. r 

36. A SUDDEN SHOWER. 

Barefooted boys scud up the street 
Or scurry under sheltering sheds ; 

And schoolgirl faces, pale and sweet, 

Gleam from the shawls about their heads. 

Doors bang ; and mother-voices call 
From alien homes ; and rusty gates 

Are slammed ; and high above it all, 
The thunder grim reverberates. 

And then, abrupt,— the rain ! the rain ! — 
The earth lies gasping ; and the eyes 

Behind the streaming window pane 
Smile at the trouble of the skies. 



NARRATIVES 55 

The highway smokes ; sharp echoes ring ; 

The cattle bawl and cow-bells clank ; 
And into town comes galloping 

The farmer's horse, with steaming flank. 

The swallow dips beneath the eaves 
And flirts his plumes and folds his wings ; 

And under the Catawba leaves 
The caterpillar curls and clings. 

The bumblebee is pelted down 

The wet stem of the hollyhock ; 
And sullenly, in spattered brown, 

The cricket leaps the garden walk. 

Within, the baby claps his hands 
And crows with rapture strange and vague ; 

Without, beneath the rosebush stands 
A dripping rooster on one leg. 

— James Whitcomb Riley S 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. What three pictures do you see, with closed eyes, as 
the first stanza is read ? What idea is in scud that is not in scurry ? 
What sounds are mentioned in the second stanza? What does 
the second statement in stanza two mean? Why do doors bang? 
Why are rusty gates slammed? What pictures are in the third 
stanza? What is meant by The earth lies gasping? Whose eyes 
are looking from the window? What pictures and what sounds in 
stanza four? Explain s?nokes and steaming. What pictures in five? 
Have you ever seen the swallow and the caterpillar thus? What 
does Catawba mean? What pictures in the sixth? What does the 
first half of six mean ? What pictures in seven ? 

Because of the pictures and sounds given in the poem, what 
experience have we undergone in imagination? Are unusual or usual 
pictures and sounds given ? Which* of the pictures and sounds have 
you never seen or heard in reality ? 

i From " Rhymes of Childhood," by James Whitcomb Riley. Used by per- 
mission of the Bobbs-Merrill Company. 



56 COMPOSITION 

Ex. II. Using such simple pictures and sounds as will be sug- 
gestive of the whole experience, write four or five short paragraphs 
about the first day of school ; about a snowstorm ; about a thaw ; 
about the coming of spring or autumn ; about a bright summer 
day ; about a very cold winter day ; about a thunderstorm ; about a 
hailstorm ; about any recent and vivid experience. 



37. THE FRIENDLY LETTER. 

In preparing for college your older brother or sister 
may be reading some of the essays of Thomas Babington 
Macaulay, who was a noted English historian and essayist. 
You have perhaps read " Horatius at the Bridge " or other 
of the " Lays of Ancient Rome." 

The following letter * was written by the boy Macaulay 
when thirteen years old, just after he had been sent from 
his home to Mr. Preston's school at Shelford, England : 

Shelford, Feb. 22d, 1813. 

My dear Papa : — As this is a whole holiday I can not find a 
better time for answering your letter. . . . 

In my learning I do Xenophon every day, and twice a week the 
" Odyssey," in which I am classed with Wilberforce, whom all the 
boys allow to be very clever, very droll, and very impudent. We do 
Latin verses twice a week, and I have not yet been laughed at, as 
Wilberforce is the only one who hears them. . . . We are exercised 
also once a week in English composition, and once in Latin compo- 
sition. . . . We get by heart Greek grammar or Virgil every 
evening. . . . 

My room is a delightful, snug little chamber, which nobody can 
enter, as there is a trick about opening the door. I sit like a king, 
with my writing desk before me, . . . my books on one side, my box 
of papers on the other, with my arm chair and my candle ; for every 
boy has a candlestick, snuffers, and extinguisher of his own. . . . 
Your affectionate son, 

Thomas B. Macaulay. 

* From Volume I. of Trevelyan's " Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay." 



LETTERS 57 



Exercise. 



Does this letter sound as much like ordinary conversation as the 
former one ? In length of sentences how does it compare ? May this 
explain the answer to the first question? Notice that Odyssey is 
inclosed in quotation marks ('« "). What in the letter on page 52 
is thus inclosed? Are the two in any way alike? Notice that in 
different places four periods are found. The first of these is for 
punctuation, while the other three are to indicate that something of 
the original letter has been omitted. 



38. RULES FOR COMPOSITION. 

Inclose in quotation marks (" ") the names of books, of papers 
and magazines, and of vessels. 1 

Inclose in quotation marks the exact words of another when 
you include them within your own writing. 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Considering the following paragraph as your 
own composition, insert the necessary quotation marks : 

On the Majestic arrived the author of My Cousin Tyrrell and the 
editor of Our Country. The Saturday Critic says editorially of the 
former, He is one of our greatest character painters, and of the latter, 
A greater magazine editor has not visited our land for years. I am 
told that Mr. Orput, the editor of Once Upon a Time, is also pro- 
prietor of Sunset Chimes and of Morning Echoes, and that he hopes 
to secure a controlling interest in The New York Courant and The 
Pittsburg Review. He has written a beautiful lyric which has been 
introduced into a recent presentation of Hamlet. 

Ex. II. Write a letter to a friend telling him of your com- 
panions, of your work at school, of your room at home, and of the 
bright saying or reply of a companion. Use his exact words. Do 
not forget quotation marks and other punctuation marks. Write 
short sentences. Make known when and where the letter is written. 

1 Italics, indicated in writing by underscoring once, are sometimes used instead 
of quotation marks. 



58 COMPOSITION 



39. THE FRIENDLY LETTER. 

This time read a letter 1 written by Robert Louis Steven- 
son when he was a boy about fifteen. Later he became 
an English author, who is particularly noted for the beauty 
and perfection of his writing. He wrote essays that you 
will wish to read when you are older, as well as stories, 
poems, and many interesting books for both young and old. 

Here is the letter, written from a famous watering place 
in southwestern England : 

2 Sulyarde Terrace, Torquay, 
. Thursday, April — , 1866. 

Respected paternal Relative : — I write to make a request of the 
most moderate nature. Every year I have cost you an enormous, 
nay, elephantine, sum of money for drugs and physician's fees, and 
the most expensive time of the twelve months was March. 

But this year the biting Oriental blasts, the howling tempests, and 
the general ailments of the human race have been successfully 
braved by yours truly. 

Does not this deserve remuneration ? 

I appeal to your charity, I appeal to your generosity, I appeal to 
your justice, I appeal to your accounts, I appeal, in fine, to your 
purse. 

My sense of generosity forbids the receipt of more, my sense of 
justice forbids the receipt of less, than half a crown. 

Greeting, from, Sir, your most affectionate and needy son, 

R. Stevenson. 

Exercise. 

To whom is this letter written? Is the language such as the 
boy would use if he were asking his father orally for half a 
crown (63 cents) ? Why does he use the long words and the high- 
sounding phrases? Would you call this a serious or a mock-serious 

1 From Volume I. of lt Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson," by Sidney Colvin. 



LETTERS 59 

style? Why does he insert the plea that he has caused no expense 
in the way of physician's fees? Meaning of Oriental, of remunera- 
tion, and of accounts ? 



40. RULE FOR PUNCTUATION. 

Notice the apostrophe and s ('s) added to the word physician in 
the above exercise. Why is it there? From this we draw the follow- 
ing rule : 

Add an apostrophe and s ('s) when writing the possessive form 
of the noun, except when the noun is plural and ends in s. Then 
the apostrophe alone is added (Gr. 138, p. 196) ; as, physician's j but 
three boys' hats. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Insert the necessary apostrophes : 

Mr. Johnss attorney said that he would stop at the prothonotarys 
office and secure his clients papers, and would meet them at Kuhns 
restaurant. Later he would stop at the physicians and get affidavits 
as to the extent of the mens injuries and as to the probable length of 
the womans illness. It was also necessary for him to stop at the 
barbers, and later at the jewelers to get his boys watches. He ex- 
pected to meet us at the consuls office at three oclock. 



Ex. II. Write a note to your mother asking for half a dollar, 
using the language you would use in talking to her. State the pur- 
pose. 

Write a note to your father asking for a dollar to go to the county 
fair, adopting a mock-serious style and making use of some nonsensi- 
cal plea. 

Examine these notes and also the letters and compositions previ- 
ously written, and see whether you have observed all the rules for 
composition and punctuation that have so far been given. 

Ex. III. When you get up some morning you find that your 
father has already gone to work and that your mother is so ill you 
will have to stay at home to help care for the younge'r children. 
Write a note to your teacher, stating these facts. In the note use the 




6o 



NARRATIVES 6l 

same language you would use if you were standing at her desk telling 
her about it. Strive to be as free and natural. 

Never be frightened by a sheet of paper and a pen or pencil. 
Never try to write unless you have something definite in mind about 
which to write, and then say it as easily and as freely as you would 
say it when talking. An effort is made in this book to give only such 
subjects as appeal directly to experiences you have had, and conse- 
quently subjects about which you have definite ideas. 



41. WORN OUT. 

After the Painting by Faed. 

Ex. I. Where in the house is this room ? How many rooms are 
occupied by this family? What is the relation of the man to the 
child ? What on the floor behind the man seems to suggest his 
trade? Has he probably been working the day before the time here 
shown? What time of day is it now? What shows that it was yet 
dark when he went to sleep? How long probably did he watch 
before he fell asleep ? Why is the candle where it is ? How long 
will it burn ? 

What two things in the picture tell that it has been a cold night? 
Why has the father removed his coat ? How do you feel toward him 
for this ? Why is the mouse in the picture ? How long has it been 
very quiet in the room? Why has the artist put the flowers on the 
window-sill and the violin on the wall ? What is in the man's right 
hand? What is beside the bowl on the floor? What evidently was 
the man doing just before he dropped asleep? What is probably in 
the bowl? Was it for the child or the man? Why has it been left 
thus on the floor? What is in the pitcher behind the man? 

Is there anything that indicates that the child's mother is dead? 
What has been left undone that a mother would probably have 
attended to? Why is the child's right hand where it is? What are 
the fingers doing? Why ? What one detail in the child's expression 
seems especially to show that he is very ill? But what makes us feel 
that he will get well ? How long has he been sleeping quietly? 

Why has the artist made the bright light fall just where it does? 

Ex. II. Write an imaginary story suggested by this picture. 
Write an account of the illness of one of your family. 



62 COMPOSITION 



42. THREE BOYS AND A DOG. 

One day while I was at the seashore I found my cousin Walter and 
his friend Dave playing on the beach. With them was Trixey, 
Walter's dog, who seemed quite tired out, as he had been swimming 
in the surf and going after sticks that Dave threw into the water. 

Walter was afraid to let him go again, but Dave kept him going 
until the poor little animal was fairly trembling with cold and fatigue. 
As he came dragging his stick up the sand and laid it at Walter's feet 
the little master hugged him and said, "There, now; that's enough. 
You shan't go any more." 

" Oh, bother ! What a silly boy you are ! It won't hurt him any. 
What are you afraid of?" scolded Dave. 

" Don't send him again. It's- cruel to urge him when he doesn't 
want to go," said Phil, another boy that now came running up. 

"Oh, go on! Don't you be so wise!" sneered Dave. "There, 
Trixey, just once more ! Good dog ! Go on, now ! " and he flung the 
stick far out into the surf. Quick as thought the little spaniel was 
plunging after it. 

" Don't let him go ! He's too tired, and I'm afraid the surf is too 
strong for him," pleaded Walter. 

" Oh, Trixey, come back!" he called, and the faithful little crea- 
ture, obedient to his master, turned and started for the shore. 

"He shan't come back ! I am going to make him get that stick. 
Go on, there ! " shouted Dave, throwing a stone after the dog. 

His aim was only too true. The stone hit the struggling creature 
on the head, and he disappeared under the water, and the strong cur- 
rent from the shore carried him out to sea. — School Work. 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. With which paragraph does the incident proper begin? 
What then is the purpose of the first paragraph ? Is the introduction 
easy and natural? How are the different speeches separated from 
one another? Notice how the quotation marks are used in the third 
paragraph and in the fourth. How are they used in the fifth ? In the 
other paragraphs? Notice the use of oh to show feeling. How is it 
spelled? What mark of punctuation follows it? What different feel- 
ings are here expressed by it? What different expressions are used 
to correspond with said yd. the second paragraph? Is the conclusion 



NARRATIVES 63 

a part of the incident proper or a mere final thought added by the 
writer ? 

Why did Walter hug the dog? Tell your opinion of each of these 
boys. 

Ex. II. Write in the form of a conversation an imaginary in- 
cident in which these three boys take part. Make each speech a sep- 
arate paragraph. Watch the quotation marks. Use another word 
than said when mentioning the speaker. 

Write of an incident you have seen in which several boys or girls 
take part. Use conversation. Change what they really said if by 
doing so you can make it sound better. 

Write the story of an experience of your own playing on the beach 
at the seaside, or along a small stream or river. 



43. WORDS TO WATCH. 

Oh, followed usually by a comma, occasionally by an exclamation 
point, should be used in all ordinary cases of emotion, both when the 
word precedes a name used in address, and when it is used merely as 
an exclamation. 

should be used only in a spirit of solemnity. Then it should 
be followed either by a noun in the case of address or by the ex- 
pression of a wish. It should never be followed by a mark of 
punctuation. 

As children are practically never under the solemn spell 
calling for O, they should use oh. 

Write " O grave ! where is thy victory ! " " O mortal 
men ! be wary how ye judge ! " " O for that high nobil- 
ity ! " 

But write " Oh, what a good time we did have ! " " Oh, 
mother, may I go to the picnic ? " " Oh, the roads were 
really awful ! " "Oh, Mary, papa is going to take me with 
him to Chicago." "And when we reached there, oh, we 
were almost covered with mud ! " 



64 COMPOSITION 



44. WHAT A BOY DID. 

Ex. I. You have seen a boy do something that made you like 
him. In as simple and clear a manner as possible tell the teacher and 
the class about the act. Try to mention all the details, the little 
things, that were helpful in causing you to like him ; omit all the 
details that were not helpful. If you repeat anything that the boy 
said, use his exact words. Remember that the plainest language is 
the best. Talk as freely and as frankly as though you were telling 
your father or mother. 

Ex. II. Write an account of the act told of as directed in the 
exercise above, using as nearly as possible the same words. Do not 
write until you have told it orally either in class or at home. Be 
careful to use capital letters, periods, interrogation points, and quota- 
tion marks correctly. 

After you have finished writing, read aloud what you have written, 
either to some one else or to yourself. If any sentences do not sound 
well, try to improve them. 



45. SUGGESTION IN LITERATURE. 

In 31 (p. 50) we learn of a little girl who comforted 
a little boy. We like her because of this act. We 
feel that she often is kind, both to people and to animals. 
In fact, we feel that she always tries to be kind. 

In other words, this single act suggests to us the kind of 
girl she is ; that is, it suggests her diameter. 

So the act of which you have told and written in 44» 
made you like the boy who did it by causing you to feel 
that if he performed one such act he would perform many 
others similar to it. That act suggested the kind of boy 
he is ; it suggested his character. 

In the same way a single mean, cowardly act has made 



SUGGESTION IN LITERATURE 65 

you dislike a boy. You feel that he will do other similar 
acts. His act suggests the kind of boy he is, suggests a 
character very different from that of the little girl told of 
in 31 and of the boy written of in the last lesson. 

The things people like and the things they do because 
they like to do them make us know the kind of people they 
are ; make us know their characters. 

In life such suggestions, or hints, are almost daily mak- 
ing us feel that we like or dislike people. So in literature 
authors tell of the acts of their boys and girls, of their men 
and women, in order to suggest the kind of people they are 
and thus to make us like or dislike them. 

Literature is full of suggestions, or hints, of this kind. 
Boys and girls, therefore, in order to read to the best 
advantage, must learn to understand easily and accurately 
the suggestions given by authors. 

In the following selection the author makes several 
different persons do things that suggest character. Read 
the selection, notice whether you like or dislike the various 
persons, determine why, and see whether you feel what 
kind of people they are : 

Oliver Horn. 

Suddenly, while he was still resenting the familiarity of the con- 
stable, Oliver's ears were assailed by the cry of a dog in pain. Some 
street-boy had kicked him. 

Oliver sprang forward as the dog crouched at his feet, caught him 
up in his arms, and started for the boys, who dodged behind the tree- 
trunks, calling " Spad, spad," as they ran. Then came the voice of 
the same constable. 

" Hi, you can't bring that dog in here." 

"He is not my dog. Somebody has hurt him," said Oliver in an 
indifferent tone, examining carefully the dog's legs to see whether 
any bones were broken. 

" If that ain't your dog what are you doin' with him? See here: 

STEPS ENG. — 5. 



66 COMPOSITION 

I've been watchin' you. You've got to move on or I'll run you in. 
Do you hear? " 

Oliver's eyes flashed. In all his life no man had ever doubted his 
word, nor had any one ever spoken to him in such terms. 

" You can do as you please, but I will take care of this dog, no 
matter what happens. You ought to be ashamed of yourself to see 
him hurt, and not want to protect him. You're a pretty kind of an 
officer." — Adapted from F. Hopkinson Smithes " The Fortunes of 
Oliver Horn'" j used by permission of Charles Scribner's Sons. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. What do the street-boys do? What character do these 
acts suggest? What does Oliver do ? What kind of boy is he? What 
do you learn about the character of the policeman? 

In answering the above questions, make your answers the same as 
they would be if you had seen the acts yourself. Have you seen 
similar things done? Tell of them in class. Tell exactly what con- 
clusions you reached about the character of the persons doing them. 

How do you suppose Oliver treats his father and mother? His 
brothers and sisters? His own dog and his sister's kittens? His 
companions? How do you think he acts in school? 

Ex. II. With what kind of letter does each sentence in the 
narrative begin? Why does Spad begin with a capital letter? With 
what mark of punctuation does each sentence end ? Notice that 
each of the sentences ending with a period (.) makes a statement, 
while each ending with an interrogation point (?) asks a question. 
Somebody has hurt him is a statement. Why is it not followed by a 
period? 

Examine all the quotation marks (" ") used. Tell why each pair 
is used. Why is there one at the end of the third paragraph ? Why 
is there not one at the end of the fourth paragraph ? Are the punc- 
tuation marks within or without the quotation marks? 

Notice that in the conversation each separate speech forms a para- 
graph. Would it be more easily or less easily understood if all of 
the conversation were in one paragraph ? How many words are in 
the longest sentence in the narrative ? 

Ex. III. Do you ever use the form can't? The form ain't? 
Of what words are these contractions? Which of the two is correct 



PUNCTUATION 6? 

when used in conversation ? What does the apostrophe ( ' ) stand for 
in the words 're, doin\ and watchin' f Even in conversation would it 
not be better to say are? Do not omit the final ^ in words ending in 
ing. Never use the form " ain't " and never fail to pronounce the 
final letter in words that end in " ing." 11 



46. RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION, PUNCTUATION, AND 
COMPOSITION. 

Begin every proper noun with a capital letter. 

Begin every independent sentence with a capital letter. 

Begin every complete exact quotation with a capital, letter. 

Put a period (.) at the end of a complete declarative (statement- 
making) sentence. 

Put an interrogation point (?) at the end of an interrogative (ques- 
tion-asking) sentence. 

Use the apostrophe ( ' ) to indicate the omission of a letter or 
letters; as, he's for he is. 

Use the hyphen (-) between the parts of a compound word; as, 
street-boy. 

Use the hyphen (-) after a syllable at the end of a line, when 
part of the word must be written or printed at the beginning of the 
next line. Be sure that the hyphen comes at the end of a syllable. 
The hyphen is never used between the letters of a word of only one 
syllable. The letters of such a word must all be on one line. 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Examine the letters and compositions you have written, 
and correct any violations of the rules so far given. 

Ex. II. Write of an incident seen by yourself somewhat similar 
to that told of in the selection under 45. 

To the Teacher. Have several of these compositions written on the black- 
board, including some containing the " exact words " of the person with whom the 
composition deals. Have the class examine them for violations of the rules thus 
far given. Opposite a line containing an error place the number indicating the 
principle violated (see pages 327-329) and let each pupil discover and correct the 



68 COMPOSITION 

mistake. Compositions should all be written with a wide margin at the right that 
this plan may be followed when indicating errors. The pupil should then make 
his corrections in red, and the paper should be examined a second time to learn 
whether the corrections have been properly made. Unless it is possible for the 
teacher to mark all papers the plan of blackboard correction should be used fre- 
quently. 



47. THE FORM OF LETTERS. 

A letter perfect in form contains the following parts : 

The Heading. — This includes the complete post-office address 
of the writer and the date on which the letter is written. . 

The Address. — This includes the name and the complete post- 
office address of the person to whom the letter is written. 

The Salutation. — This is the word or phrase of address used in 
beginning the body of the letter. In a friendly letter the salutation 
may be My dear Cousin, My dear Virginia, Dear Uncle John, etc. ; 
in a business letter to an individual it should be Dear Sir or My 
dear Sir; in a business letter to a firm or company it should be 
Gentlemen. 

The Body of the Letter. — This consists of the communication 
made to the person to whom the letter is written. 

The Closing Phrase. — This is the word or phrase just preceding 
the name of the writer. In a friendly letter it may be Your loving 
cousin, Your sincere friend, Yours affectionately, etc, ; in a business 
letter it should be Yours respectfully , Yours most respectfully, Very 
respectfully yours, or the like. 

The Signature. — This is the name of the person writing. In 
business letters and in all other letters except those to members of 
one's own family the full name should be used. In family letters it 
is permissible to use only the given name or even a nickname. When 
writing to a firm or to a stranger a woman should sign her name thus : 

{Miss) Elizabeth No man (if unmarried). 

Elizabeth No man \ , . A , ., . £ • jv 

1 write both, if married). 
{Mrs. John Y. Noman) ) 

(Mrs.) Elizabeth Noman (if a widow). 



LETTERS 69 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. hi the following business letter give the proper 
name to each of the different parts : 

241 Craft St., Indianapolis, Ind., 
Oct. 27, 1902. 
A. F. Otis Co., 

400 Washington St., 
Buffalo, N.Y. 

Gentlemen : — Inclosed find money order for 
Fifty dollars ($50), for which please send me a set of the " Canadian 
Encyclopedia," bound in cloth. 

Yours respectfully, 

N. S. Jonson. 



Ex. II. Notice again the punctuation of each of the different 
parts. What punctuation mark follows St and Pa and why? What 
punctuation mark follows the salutation? If the body of the letter 
begins on the line below the salutation, only the colon ( : ) is used, the 
dash ( — ) being omitted. Write the letter in this form. 



48. RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 

Follow every abbreviation with a period. 

Use a colon ( : ) after the salutation in a letter when the body of 
the letter begins on the following line. When it begins on the same 
line, follow the colon with a dash ( : — ). 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Write the abbreviations for each of the months, 
for each of the States of the Union, and for the following 
phrases, words, and titles : 

And so forth ; County ; Mister ; Mistress (usually pronounced 
Missis); Honorable; Member of Congress; Master of Arts; Rev- 



JO COMPOSITION 

erend ; Doctor ; Doctor of Philosophy ; Doctor of Laws ; Professor ; 
Governor. 



Ex. II. Prepare perfect letter forms, using the fol- 
loiving facts : 

F. H. Williams, living at 1800 Fifth Avenue, Indianapolis, Ind., 
writes on the 2nd of January, of the present year, to George F. Thuma, 
who lives in Clark's Hill, Tippecanoe County, Indiana. Use the 
proper abbreviations, and punctuate and arrange correctly. 

George F. Thuma writes to F. H. Williams thirty days later. 

Sarah T. Arond writes to Perry Mason & Co., 201 Columbus 
Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts, from her home at 246 Vincennes 
Street, Indianapolis, Indiana, on the 5th of December, 1901. 

Perry Mason and Company write to Sarah T. Arond thirty days 
later. 

F. J. Smith's wife, Martha, writes on August 23d, 1902, to J. K. 
Maintenon and Company, who do business at 17 Rue de l'Opera, 
Paris, France. 

A month later J. K. Maintenon and Company write to Mrs. 
Smith. 

Ex. III. Cut slips of paper into the form of an envelope (6| 
by 3 \ inches) and address each of the above letters in the proper 
form, as shown below and on the next page. Near the upper right- 
hand corner outline a place for the stamp. Always put the stamp 
on this part of the envelope, as the government machines are made 
to cancel at this place. 






LETTERS 



71 



TVkA^AA;, S, 15. &TukA/^cvYb T Co., 

CJoAoaxpe>, 

JUL 



OlXX/f/toTU, 

QlLufrhjyrh'ty Co. 



fl 



cu 



To The Teacher. In correcting these letters and envelopes, keep in mind 
the additional rules for punctuation given in 48. 



49. WORDS TO WATCH. 



Don't is a contraction for do not. 
Doesn't is a contraction for does not. 



Exercise. 

Insert the proper contraction : 
. know the way. 



He 



We 



wish to go. Thev 



care for heat. You know where they have gone. 

It make any difference to us. She seem to like 




72 



NARRATIVES 73 

to go to school. The men stay after 4 o'clock. In the 

evening she _go out alone. To love one's neighbor _ 

mean to hate one's self. The wheat seem ready to cut. 

Warning. Say he doesn't, she doesn't, and it doesn't, rather than 
he don't, she don't, and it don't. 



50. HARVESTERS' RETURN. 

After the Painting by A Ifred Seifert. 

Ex. I. What shows that this picture does not represent an Ameri- 
can scene ? Where do you suppose it is located? Who are the main 
figures in the picture? What has the girl on the left had in her basket? 
In the jug that is now in the basket? Which girl is carrying some- 
thing in the skirt of her dress? What do you suppose she is carry- 
ing ? Why have some of the other girls turned up their skirts ? What 
shows that this is a picture of the return of the harvesters rather than 
of their departure? What shows that this is a group of harvesters? 
How many sickles are in the picture? Are the men or the women 
carrying them? How many scythes? Who is furnishing the group 
music? Who is the man in the long coat walking near the load of 
grain? Or is it a load of hay ? Why your answer ? Notice the little 
girl behind the boy at the left. What has she on her arm? Why? 

Into what two groups has the artist divided the six prominent fig- 
ures? Which girl of the group of four is being watched by the other 
three? Why are they watching her? What does she seem to be 
doing? Which of the groups is the more happy? What is causing 
the happy expression of their faces ? Why perhaps do the others show 
less sunshine in their faces? But what shows that the two groups 
are friendly? Where is the left hand of the girl at your left in the 
picture ? Of the girl next to her ? 

What in the background shows the hour of the day ? 

Ex. II. Write a story about the boy, the girl, and the dog shown 
in the picture. 

Write an account of an experience of your own during some har- 
vest time. 

Write any story suggested by the picture. 



74 COMPOSITION 

51. THE STORY OF A TRIP. 

Every boy and girl, after a trip to the woods, to a 
friend's, to grandmother's, or after any other pleasant out- 
ing, wishes, when again at home, to tell of the pleasures 
of the day. To give an outline of the trip is not enough. 
There is no interest in an account that simply amounts to 
" We started, we reached there, we stayed till dusk, and we 
came home." The details — the little events that excited 
your delight, your fear, your merriment, that made the 
day pleasant or unpleasant — are the points that give inter- 
est. The things you did, the sights you saw, the sounds 
you heard, — tell of these and you put life into your story, 
you make it real. Contrasts, too, help to give interest : 
the gloom of the forest contrasted with the sunshine of 
the meadow ; the despair of the person you met contrasted 
with your own feeling of delight ; the hovel and the great 
farmhouse ; the hot sunshine and the cool shade ; your own 
warmth and the cool spring ; the dusty road and the rip- 
pling stream. In telling such a story the various events 
should be given in their proper order. 

Exercise. 

First orally, and then in writing, tell the story of a day's outing, 
trying to observe the suggestions given above. A recent experience 
should be chosen, as it is more clearly in mind. 

52. A GENTLEMAN. 

Read carefully the following selection. What sugges- 
tion of character do you find in it ? 

My grandfather came to see my mother once at about this time 
and visited the mills. When he had entered our room and looked 



ACTS THAT SHOW CHARACTER 75 

around for a moment, he took off his hat and made a low bow to the 
girls, first to the right, and then towards the left. . . . We had 
never seen anybody bow to a room full of mill girls in that polite way, 
and some one of the family afterwards asked him why he did so. 

He looked a little surprised at the question, but answered promptly 
and with dignity, " I always take off my hat to ladies." 

— Lticy Larco7n in " A New England Girlhood" 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Tell the class or a friend of an act performed by an aged 
person suggestive of his character. It may show a thoughtful and 
lovable nature, or one of a very different kind. Perhaps.you can tell 
of several incidents suggesting different kinds of character. 

Ex. II. Write an account of one of these incidents, using much 
the same language as that used when you told of it. 

Write a letter to some aged relative or friend, telling of an incident 
suggesting the lovable nature of an old lady or gentleman. If possible 
tell of an incident that you have seen. 

Ex. III. What mark of punctuation just precedes the quoted 
words of the grandfather in the above? What mark of punctuation 
precedes or follows the quoted words in the following sentences ? 

i. Spurgeon said, "Sympathy is especially a Christian duty." 

2. " Yon sun ive follow in his flight" writes Byron. 

3. " The deepest truths" says Alcott, "are best read between the 
lines, and, for the most part, refuse to be written" 

4. " There are more men ennobled by study" says Cicero, "than 
by nature." 

How does the punctuation of the last two sentences differ from 
the punctuation of the others? Notice the quotation marks. 
From these illustrations we derive the following rule: 

53. RULE FOR PUNCTUATION. 

Set off a brief quotation from the rest of the sentence by a comma 
or by commas. 



76 COMPOSITION 

Exercise. 

Make sentences using the following quotations. In each 
case put the words you add, first before and then after the 
quotation, and when possible put them within the quotation, 
as in the third illustrative sentence in Ex. III., p. 75. 

1. The measure of life is not length but honesty. — Lyly. 

2. Poetry comes nearer the vital truth than history. — Plato. 

3. Nothing is more simple than greatness ; indeed, to be simple is 
to be great. — Emerson. 

4. Thought takes man out of servitude into freedom. — Emerson. 

5. Time wasted is existence, used is life. — Young. 

6. Lack of desire is the greatest riches. — Seneca. 

7. A healthy body is good, but a soul in right health is the thing 
beyond all others to be prayed for. — Carlyle. 

8. A man must either imitate the vicious or hate them. 

— Montaigne. 

To the Teacher. Have several compositions read in class each day, asking 
pupils to tell what kind of person is suggested. In the manner already out- 
lined (p. 67; see also p. 327), correct as many papers as possible. Often resort 
to blackboard corrections, requiring all pupils to write an improved form for each 
error pointed out. 



54. BUSINESS LETTER. 

Read carefully the following business letter : 

Maizeville, N.Y., March 1, 1902. 
Robert Durham, Esq., 
105 Fifth St., 

New York, N.Y. 
Dear Sir: 

I have a place that will suit you, I think. It can be bought 
at about the figure you name. Come and see it. I shan't crack it 
up, but want you to judge for yourself. 

Respectfully yours, 

John Jones. 



LETTERS yj 

Exercise. 

What in this letter suggests the character of John Jones? What 
kind of man do you think he is? Why have you this idea? What 
sort of man will write the last sentence of the letter? Would you 
have liked him more or less if he had told of all the advantages and 
attractions of the farm he wishes to sell ? If he had told of both its 
advantages and disadvantages ? Does he suggest either ? How? 

Do you consider crack it up an expression that should be used by 
educated people? Give the reason for your answer. Note the use 
of the word place. Do not use it in this meaning. Say farm or home. 



55. RULES FOR COMPOSITION. 

From the above exercise we may draw the following 
rules : 

Avoid the use of slang, both in conversation and in written work. 

Use a word only in the meaning in which it is used b\ the major- 
ity of educated writers and speakers. 

Exercise. 

Write a letter to William Finland, who lives in Stone, Randolph 
County, Ind., telling him of a dog you have for sale. Try to impress 
him so favorably that he will wish to buy the dog. Will you suggest 
or declare its good points? Be careful to make the letter complete 
in form and perfect in punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. 

Write a letter to Margaret Manning, who lives in Brockwayville, 
Jefferson County, Pennsylvania, telling of canary birds you have for 
sale. 

Write a letter to some person you know, telling of something you 
really have for sale. 

56. WORDS TO WATCH. 

Beside means by the side of. 
Besides means in addition to. 



73 COMPOSITION 

Exercise. 

Insert the proper word : 

I was in the house and there were three others me. He 

is sitting the house. He asked you to walk him. 

What will you take your trunk? In the yard was a tall 

maple various fruit trees. 

57. THE FRIENDLY LETTER. 

Friendly and social letters may contain all the parts of 
the perfect letter form, but very often the address is 
omitted. In case a friendly or social letter is of special 
importance, however, the address should be inserted. 

The following is the proper form for informal friendly 
and social letters : 

Gloversville, N.Y., July 17, 1903. 
My dear Father : 

[Body of Letter.] 

Yours with love, 

Junior. 

Exercise. 

Write a letter to your cousin or friend telling of something done 
by one of your companions which seems to you to suggest his charac- 
ter. Write from your own home. Punctuate all the parts as above. 

Write a letter to your father or mother, who is visiting at 258 
Thirty-second Street, Chicago, Illinois, telling that you have recently 
become acquainted with Oliver Horn, and explaining why you like 
him. 

Write a letter to your cousin James, whose address is Rural Free 
Delivery 27, Mayville, Chautauqua County, New York, telling him 
how Oliver defended the dog and asking him how he treats the vari- 
ous animals about the farm. Use proper abbreviations. 

Write a letter to Perry Mason and Company (see Comp. 48), in- 
closing a dollar and seventy-five cents for " The Youth's Companion " 
for one year beginning with next January. Cut and address envelope. 



NARRATIVES 



58. THE FOREIGN GENTLEMAN. » 



79 



Read the following selection, watching carefully for 
every character suggestion : 

"As I went down stairs soon after, I saw something I liked. The 
flights are very long in this tall house, and as I stood waiting at the 
head of the third for a little servant-girl to climb slowly up, I saw a 
gentleman come along behind her, take the heavy hod of coal out of 
her hand, carry it all the way up, put it down at the door near by, and 
walk away, saying, with a kind nod and a foreign accent, 

" ' It goes better so. The little back is too young for such a 
weight.' 

"Wasn't it good of him? I like such things, for, as father says, 
trifles show character. 

— Adapted from Louisa M. Alcott in " Little Women." 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. What kind of person employs the little servant-girl, 
judging from the work the child must do? What of the character of 
the foreign gentleman ? What feeling have you toward Jo, the young 
girl who tells of the incident and who is so pleased with it? 



Ex. II. Notice that each of the paragraphs begins with quo- 
tation marks. The selection is from a letter written by Jo and quoted 
by Miss Alcott in her book. She, quoting it, puts it in quotation 
marks. As the letter consists of a number of paragraphs, she puts 
the quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the 
end of only the last. Why, then, are there no quotation marks after 
the last paragraph quoted here? 

Notice further that the second paragraph is within single quota- 
tion marks (' '). When Jo wrote the letter what marks did she put 
around this paragraph? The rule is that a quotation within a quota- 
tion should be inclosed in single quotation marks. 

1 This and later selections from Miss Alcott's " Little Women " are used by 
permission of Little, Brown and Company, Boston. 



80 COMPOSITION 

Why would it be less easy to get. the meaning if the comma 
following after were omitted ? The clause As I went down stairs 
soon after is really restrictive, or necessary in order to get the 
writer's full meaning, and as such it should not be separated from 
the rest of the sentence by a comma. But to add clearness, to avoid 
a possibility of at first giving a wrong idea, the comma is used. 



59. RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 

When a passage consisting of several paragraphs is quoted, place 
quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end 
of none except the last. 

A quotation within a quotation should be inclosed within single 
quotation marks ('"')•- 

Use a comma whenever, by appealing to the eye, it will make 
the meaning of a sentence clearer. 

Exercise. 

Tell in class and then write a paragraph about some act of kind- 
ness you have seen a man or woman do for a boy or girl. 

Tell in class and then write a paragraph about some act you have 
seen showing a kind of character opposite to that suggested in the 
last selection. 

In the next letter you write to a friend tell of something showing 
character. 



60. TELEGRAMS. 

When a telegram is to be sent there is no time to stop 
to learn how to send it. Therefore boys and girls should 
become familiar with the details connected with the send- 
ing of telegrams, and should have some practice in con- 
densing messages to the rate-limit of ten words. The 
meaning, however, must be clear, no matter how many 
words may be required. 

The telegraph form, which is found lying on the counter 



TELEGRAMS 8 1 

in the telegraph office, has blanks for the date of the mes- 
sage, for the name and address of the person to whom it 
is sent, for the message proper, and for the name of the 
sender. The lines for the message are generally divided 
into five equal parts, the intention being that a single word 
shall be written within each division, thus enabling the 
operator to count the words with speed and accuracy. 
The following is an illustration of a message ready to hand 
to the operator : 

December 24, 1902. 
J. H.Johnson, 

133 Ellicott Square, 

Buffalo, N.Y. 

Unexpected vacation. Will be home 

at eleven. Friend with me. 



Fred F. Johnson. 



Exercise. 



For each of the following telegrams make a blank like the one 
shown. Try to put each message into ten words or fewer. The ad- 
dress and signature are not counted in the number of words. 

Write a telegram to your father stating that your brother is in 
the Bellevue Hospital in New York, having been thrown under a car 
and having had his foot crushed. Ask your father to come at 
once. 

Write a telegram to American Book Company, 100 Washington 
Square, New York, asking them to send you at once by Adams 
Express thirty copies of this book and thirty copies of Baldwin's 
" Fifty Famous Stories Retold." 

Your best friend has won a prize of $25 in the annual prize essay 
contest of the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg, Pa. Send him a tele- 
gram of congratulation, and state that you will pass through Pitts- 
burg this evening on the seven o'clock train from Chicago to 
New York. 

Send a telegram to your uncle, C. M. Miles, Atlanta, Ga., telling 

STEPS ENG. — 6. 




S2 



COMPOSITION 83 

him of the death of F. H. Doyle, and stating that the funeral will be 
Thursday afternoon at 2 o'clock. 

Telegraph to your grandmother at 9 Sixby Street, Evansville, Ind., 
that your house burned last night, that you all escaped safe, that 
everything was destroyed, and that you will all leave on the ten- 
thirty train to-morrow morning to stay with her till other arrange- 
ments can be made. 



61. HOW TO PLAY A GAME. 

Exercise. Tell in a paragraph how to play some game with 
which you are familiar. Choose a simple one. Connect your account 
of the game with a picnic or a party. Tell it so that you will have 
to use quotation marks. 

Write a letter to a friend, asking for full directions for playing the 
game you took part in last Thursday night at her home. Explain 
that you are going to a party at your aunt's in the country, and that 
you wish to be able to suggest this game, as you enjoyed it very 
much. 

Write an answer to this letter. 



62. THE GLADIATOR CONDEMNED. 

After the Painting by Gerome. 

Ex. I. In what city may we imagine this scene is taking place? 
In what building? How long has the present series of contests been 
in progress? Why your answer? How many bodies are on the sand 
of the arena ? Which ones are bodies of dead men ? 

With whom has the standing gladiator just been fighting? With 
what have they been fighting? Where are the conqueror's feet? 
Why is he looking up ? (When his opponent was defeated it was cus- 
tomary for a gladiator to look to the spectators — usually to the group 
of spotless vestal virgins — to learn whether he should kill his fallen 
foe or grant him life.) To which special group is this conqueror 
looking? Is it a group of men or women? How are they dressed? 
Do the spectators wish to spare or to kill him? 



84 COMPOSITION 

What is the position of their bodies ? Why are they leaning for- 
ward ? Why are their arms extended ? What is the position of their 
thumbs? What does this mean? (Reversed thumbs demanded the 
death of the conquered.) Will the gladiator be compelled to kill his 
foe? 

What is the position of the head of the conquered ? Why is his 
mouth open? Where is the conqueror's foot? What is the position 
of the conqueror's right arm? Toward whom is it extended ? Why ? 
Where is his left hand? Why? What is the position of his feet? 
Why is his right leg raised ? 

Toward what point are all the spectators looking? How impor- 
tant a moment in the sport is this ? How much pity do you find in the 
faces or attitudes of the spectators? How is the conquered dressed ? 
Was he better prepared for the contest than his foe ? What is on 
his left arm? On his right arm? On his head? Legs? Had the 
conquered a shield ? How did he use the net and the trident on the 
sand at his right? Did the short sword at the left of the picture 
probably belong to him or to the man near whom it lies? 

Does the conqueror seem to wish to kill or to spare ? Why your 
answer ? 

What signs do we see here of luxury and splendor ? How many 
people are here? How many did the Colosseum at Rome seat? 
(See encyclopedia.) What other sports took place in the arena? 
What are the eagles at the tops of the columns ? How far are the 
gladiators from the nearest spectators ? That they could thus demand 
death and look upon it, indicates what kind of people? In what cen- 
tury did gladiatorial sports most flourish ? 

Do you believe that the world is better now than it was at the time 
here pictured? Why your answer ? 

Ex. II. Write a description of this picture. 

Suppose that these two men are brothers : write their story. 

Write any story, or an account of any incident, suggested by this 
picture. 

Tell or write about your dog or cat, mentioning some of the espe- 
cially interesting things he has done. 

Tell or write the story of a visit you have made to a circus or a 
zoological garden. Tell of the tricks you saw the animals perform. 
Mention the animals you like best and explain why. Mention the 
ones you care for least and give reasons. 



NARRATIVES 85 

63. A BOY'S SONG 

Where the pools are bright and deep, 
Where the gray trout lies asleep, 
Up the river and o'er the lea, 
That's the way for Billy and me. 

Where the blackbird sings the latest, 
Where the hawthorn blooms the sweetest, 
Where the nestlings chirp and flee, 
That's the way for Billy and me. 

Where the mowers mow the cleanest, 
Where the hay lies thick and greenest; 
There to trace the homeward bee, 
That's the way for Billy and me. 

Where the hazel-bank is steepest, 
Where the shadow falls the deepest, 
Where the clustering nuts fall free, 
That's the way for Billy and me. 



But this I know: I love to play, 

Through the meadow, among the hay ; 

Up the water and o'er the lea, 

That's the way for Billy and me. — James Hogg. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Give the meaning of the following words as used in this 
poem : lea, latest, hawthorn, nestlings, trace, homeward, deepest. 
What are the four pictures in the first stanza? What pictures are 
found in the other stanzas ? What sounds are introduced ? With 
closed eyes try to see the various pictures. Try to hear the various 
sounds. Of the various pictures suggested, which do you like best? 

Ex. II. In three or four short paragraphs tell of a place that 
especially pleases you. It may be in the country, in the city, or in 
the suburbs ; it may be along the highway or in the deep woods. 
Try to present simple, everyday pictures and sounds, as is done in 
the poem given. 



86 COMPOSITION 



64. WORDS TO WATCH. 

Expect means to look for (mentally) in future time. It is often 
incorrectly used with reference to past or to present time, in the 
sense of think or suppose. It is not possible to expect a person was 
ill yesterday. 

Exercise. 

Insert expect, think, or suppose : 

I you were there last night. We to start to- 
morrow. Do you to go to New York soon ? I it 

was a close game. Where do you to go next summer? 

May is used to ask for permission or to grant it ; to make known 
that permission has been granted ; and sometimes to make known that 
something may possibly be done ; as, May I go ? You may go. I 
may go if I care to. I may {possibly) go if the weather is pleasant. 

Can is used to state that one has power to do a given thing ; as, / 
can lift fifty pounds, and I can swim twenty yards. I can multiply 
but I can not divide in algebra. . 

Exercises. 
Ex. I. How do these sentences differ in meaning? 

I can swim to the island if I may. I may swim to the island if I 
can. 

Ex. II. Insert may or can : 

. . I go to the woods with the boys? You if you 

wear your shoe. Mother says I go if you 

go with me. He cross the ocean next month. I 

think I work that problem. I sharpen my pencil? 



PART II. 
I. GRAMMAR. 

THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS (CONTINUED). 
COMPLEMENTS, PHRASES, AND CLAUSES 



65. COMPLEMENTS. 

i. Verbs of Complete Predication. In the sentences 
that you have thus far been required to analyze or diagram, 
the predicate has consisted of a verb which by itself made 
a complete assertion or predication. Such verbs are called 
Verbs of Complete Predication ; l as, 

i. The ship sank. 
2. She must weep. 

The verb in each of these sentences makes a complete 
assertion. We may use additional words to make the 
assertion more definite ; as, 

The ship sank quickly ; or sank slowly ; or sank in the harbor ; 

yet the verb sank makes a complete assertion without 
these additional words, and is, therefore, a verb of com- 
plete predication. 

2. Verbs of Incomplete Predication. Some verbs are 
very rarely used alone as predicates, but require an addi- 
tional word, or words, to complete the assertion. Such 
words are called Verbs of Incomplete Predication, or, briefly, 
Incomplete Verbs ; as, 

1 Complete verbs are sometimes called Attributive Verbs, because they express 
in themselves the attribute ascribed to the subject. 

87 



88 GRAMMAR 

i. Washington was. 

2. Washington crossed. 

3. The weather is. 

4. The weather became. 

5. General Grant said. 

Each of these expressions contains a subject joined 
with a verb, yet it is incomplete as making an assertion, 
and we must supply additional words to fill out or complete 
the meaning of the predicate ; thus : 



Washington was president. 

Washington crossed the Delaware. 

The weather is fine. 

The weather became settled. 

General Grant said, " Let us have peace.' 



Definition. That which is joined to a verb to fill out or com- 
plete the predication is called a Complement. 

Exercise. 

In each of the following groups of words tell whether 
the verb makes complete predication, and if the predication 
is incomplete y supply suitable complements : 



I. 


The trees are 


14. 


The nuts are 


2. 


The sun is 


i5- 


The carriage is 


3- 


The sun shines 


16. 


The cat catches 


4- 


William Penn founded 


17. 


Milton was 


5- 


Philadelphia is 


18. 


The Japanese captured 


6. 


Daises are 


19. 


De Soto discovered 


7- 


Peaches taste 


20. 


General Garfield became 


S. 


The South exports 


21. 


Whitney invented 


9- 


The river rises 


22. 


The rain is 


10. 


Plants need 


2 3- 


Habits grow 


1 1. 


The books are 


24. 


The flag waves 


12. 


The lesson seems 


25- 


We completed 


'3- 


The train stops 


26. 


Music pleases 



COMPLEMENTS 89 



66. KINDS OF COMPLEMENTS. 

If you observe closely you will notice that the comple- 
ments you supplied in the last exercise are of two kinds : 

1. Complements that name the subject, or describe it by denoting 
some quality, or attribute, of it ; as, The first president was Wash- 
ington. The complement Washington names the subject. The 
earth is round. Round denotes an attribute of the earth. 

2. Complements that name the object which receives the act per- 
formed by the subject and expressed by the verb ; as, The Romans built 
ships. Ships is the object that receives the action performed by the 
subject Romans and expressed by the verb built. 

In the twenty-six sentences of the preceding exercise (Gr. 
65) you were required to supply twenty-one complements. 
Write these complements in two columns, placing in the 
first all those that name or describe the subject ; in the sec- 
ond, all those naming the object that receives the action 
expressed by the verb. 

The complements in the first column are called Attribute 
Complements, or, more briefly, Attributes. Why ? 

Those in the second column are called Object Comple- 
ments, or, more briefly, Objects. Why ? 

Definitions. An Attribute Complement completes the predi- 
cate by naming or describing the subject. 

An Object Complement completes the predicate by naming that 
which receives the action expressed by the verb. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. In the following sentences the indicated words 
are complements. Tell of each whether it is an attribute 
or an object : 



90 GRAMMAR 

i. We smell the roses. 2. The roses smell sweet. 

3. He tasted an apple. 4. The apple tasted sour. 

5. The corn grows tall. 6. The farmer grows corn. 

7. The boy turned the grind- 3- The boy that fell turned 

stone. pale. 

9. The mid-day sun feels warm. 10. The traveler feels the heat. 
11. The coat becomes old. 12. The coat becomes the boy. 

13. The hat becomes the man, 14. The boy becomes the man. 

15. The conqueror very often becomes a tyrant. 

16. Humanity always becomes a conqueror. — Sheridan. 

17. To be tender-minded does not become a sword. — Shakespeare. 

Ex. II. Point out the complements in the following sen- 
tences and tell whether they are object or attribute com- 
plements, and why. Diagram each sentence according to 
the following examples : 

earth A is \ round President f\ was\ Washington 



first 
The 



Romans A built \ ships 
~\The 



i. The birds are joyful. 

2. The birds' friend is Audubon. 

3. Audubon loved the beautiful birds. 

4. He organized a society for their protection. 

5. Every act has priceless value. 

6. Nature wears a smiling face. 

7. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

8. The cottage faces the east. 

9. Flowers are thoughts of the spirit of God. 
10. Sweet is pleasure after pain. 



67. COPULATIVE VERBS. 



Incomplete verbs that require an attribute complement 
are called Copulative Verbs, or Copulas. They are so 



COMPLEMENTS 91 

called because they are used as joining words, or couplers, 
to join the subject to that which is asserted of it. Thus : 

The dog cross. The dog cross. 

I seems \ y s \ 

Definition. A Copulative Verb, or Copula, is a verb that 
makes a predication by joining the subject to that which is asserted 
of it. 

Of the small number of verbs used as copulas, the verb 
be (am, is, was, were, has been, etc.) is the most com- 
mon. Others are : become, smell, sound, look, etc. 

These verbs are not always used as copulas. Even the 
word be, which is almost purely copulative, is sometimes 
used as a complete verb meaning to exist ; as, 

God is and ever shall be. 

Time was when no man lived here. 

To be, or not to be, — that is the question. 

A copula takes an attribute complement. It never has 
an object. 

Exercise. 

Turn to Grammar 66, p. 89, and make a list of all the 
verbs used as copulas in Exercises I. and II. 

Caution. Distinguish carefully words that are added as modifi- 
ers of the predicate from words that are added as co?nplements. In 
the sentence " The girl writes well," the word well is used to modify 
the meaning of the verb and to tell how the girl writes. In the sen- 
tence " The girl writes a letter," the word letter is added to the verb 
to tell what the girl writes. A complement of a verb usually an- 
swers the question formed by placing what ? who ? or whom ? after 
the verb. The girl writes what ? A letter. A modifier of a verb 
usually answers the question formed by placing how ? when ? or 
where ? after the verb. The letter was written how ? Well. 



92 GRAMMAR 

Exercise. 

In the following sentences the indicated words are either 
complements or modifiers. Point out the complements and 
tell whether they are attribute or object complements : 

i. The child speaks the truth. 

2. The child speaks distinctly. 

3. The boy obeyed promptly. 

4. The boy obeyed his teacher. 

5. The pupils paint well. 

6. The pupils paint landscapes. 

7. The girl turned quickly. 

8. The girl turned her back. 

9. Arnold turned traitor. 

10. He remained there for the rest of his life. 

11. He remained secretary for the rest of his life. 
i2„ He who loves praise, loves temptation. 

13. He who loves truly, loves always. 

14. The lady looked pleasantly at the child. 

15. Soft eyes looked love to eyes that spake again. 



68. FACTITIVE COMPLEMENTS. 

You have learned that verbs of incomplete predication 
require either an attribute or an object complement to 
complete their meaning. Some verbs require something 
in addition to an object complement to complete their 
meaning ; as, 

They made the boy 

This 7)i ade him . 

In these two groups of words we have subject, verb, 
and complement ; yet they are not complete sentences. 
Additional words are required to complete the predicate : 

They made the boy captive. 
This made hi?n unhappy. 



COMPLEMENTS 93 

The use of these complementary words captive and un- 
happy may be seen in the following diagrams : 

made / captive 
They the boy 

= captured 

made / tinhappy 

This him 

= disheartened 

Captive, you observe, completes the action expressed by 
the verb made, and is an attribute of boy, resulting from 
that action. Or, we may say, captive completes the predi- 
cate and at the same time describes the object. 

Definition. A word or group of words used to complete the 
predicate and to describe the object is called a Factitive Comple- 
ment. 1 

The word factitive comes from a Latin word meaning make. As 
a rule the factitive complement follows a verb for which make can be 
substituted. Why, then, is factitive complement a suitable name? 
How does a factitive complement differ from an attribute complement? 

Exercise. 

Point out the factitive complements in the following 
sentences, show that they belong to both the verb and the 
object, see whether the verb make can be substituted, and 
diagram according to this model: 

They A made / captive \ boy 
Ythe 

i. They proclaimed Alphonso king. 

2. They considered him great. 

3. They named the city Rome. 

4. A fellow-feeling makes one wondrous kind. 

5. We pumped the well dry. 

l The factitive complement is sometimes called the Objective Complement, be- 
cause it describes the object. 



94 GRAMMAR 

6. The carpenter planed the board smooth. 

7. He sawed the board square. 

8. He painted the board red. 

9. He kept the board painted. 

10. He made the board useful. 

11. Haste can make you slipshod. 

12. It can never make you graceful. 

13. We can make our lives sublime. 

14. Shafts of sunshine from the west 

Paint the dusky windows red. 



69. THE INDIRECT OBJECT. 

They made the boy a coat. 

Note that this sentence resembles somewhat the sen- 
tence given to illustrate the factitive complement : " They 
made the boy captive." 

The word coat, however, does not stand in the same re- 
lation to the verb made as does the word captive. 

They A made \ coat 
I (>r) 1 boy \a 
1 Uhe 

Coat is the object complement, and boy, instead of being a factitive 
complement used to describe the coat, merely tells for whom the 
coat is intended. 

The janitor gave the blackboard a coat of paint. 

In this sentence point out the word that tells for what the coat of 
paint is intended. 

Definition. A noun or pronoun that tells for whom or what 
the object complement is intended, is called an indirect Object. 

When a verb takes an indirect object, the object complement may 
be called the direct object to distinguish it from the indirect. 

The nature of the indirect object maybe seen by placing the direct 
object before the indirect ; as, 



INDIRECT OBJECT 95 

i. Owen wrote his mother a i. Owen wrote a letter to his 
letter. mother. 

2. She bought him a present. 2. She bought a present for him. 

3. She gave him a book. 3. She gave a book to him. 

She A gave \ book 
\(to) 1 him \a 

From these sentences it is seen that the indirect object 
is practically a phrase modifier of the predicate, having the 
preposition to or for omitted. In analyzing, call the in- 
direct object a modifier of the predicate, and place it as 
such in the diagram. 

Exercise. 

Diagmm the following sente7tces, mention the object of 
each, and tell for whom or what the object is intended: 

1. Edith made her doll a dress. 

2. Will you do me a favor? 

3. The child told him the truth. 

4. Forgive us our debts. 

5. Sidney gave the dying soldier a drink. 

6. The secretary sent Dr. Noss an invitation. 

7. Mr. Rhinehart teaches us music. 

8. You can't teach an old dog new tricks. 

9. David sold the deacon a horse. 

10. I wish you good luck. 

11. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul. 



70. REVIEW. 

Exercise. Select the complements in the followmg a?id 
tell the kind of each ; also point out the indirect objects : 

1. The camel is a native of Arabia. 

2. Camels are patient animals and carry heavy burdens. 



96 GRAMMAR 

3. The merchant gave the boy a chance. 

4. He made the boy his secretary. 

5. By industry he became a prosperous man. 

6. Idleness is the mother of all the vices. 

7. Poverty wants few things, avarice everything. 

8. Nothing is profitable that is dishonest. 

9. Faithfulness to duty brought him his reward. 

10. Enthusiasm makes men happy, keeps them hopeful. 

11. Living is not breathing ; it is acting. 

12. Hunger makes coarse meats delicate. 

13. A good cause makes a stout heart and a strong arm. 

14. Work wields the weapons of power, wins the palm of success, 
and wears the crown of victory. 

15. Each moment's use is an investment made for profit or loss in 
the future. 

Test Questions, i. What is meant by a verb of complete predi- 
cation? 2. What is a copulative verb? 3. Does a copulative verb 
ever have an object? 4. Why are some complements called attri- 
butes? 5. How many kinds of complements are there? 6. What 
parts of speech may be used as complements ? 7. What is an indi- 
rect object? 8. How does a factitive complement differ from an 
attribute complement? 9. From an object complement ? 10. Write, 
or select from your reader, five sentences to illustrate the use of the 
object and five to show the use of the attribute. 11. Write or select 
two sentences to show the use of the factitive complement, and two 
sentences to show the use of the indirect object. 



71. INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

From the foregoing lessons you have become familiar 
with the nine different parts of speech, and have learned 
their uses as the simple elements, or parts, of the sentence ; 
namely, Subject, Predicate, Complement, Modifier, and 
Connective. 

Besides these nine parts of speech there are two other 
kinds of words which, although not separate parts of speech, 



THE INFINITIVE 97 

have been given individual names. They belong to the 
verb, and are classified as forms of the verb ; but both 
may be used to do the work of some other part of speech in 
the sentence. The one is called the Infinitive and the other 
the Participle. 



72. THE INFINITIVE. 

Using the proper form of the verb study, fill the blanks 
in the following sentences : 

i. The boy grammar. 

2. Both boys gra?nmar. 

3. The teacher expects the boy to grammar. 

4. The teacher expects both boys to grammar. 

How many boys are spoken of in sentence 1 ? In sentence 2? 
How does the form of the verb in 1 differ from the form used in 2 ? 
Why is it necessary to use a different form in 2 ? Is the form you 
inserted in 3 the same as the form you inserted in 4 ? How many 
boys are spoken of in 3 ? How many in 4 ? 

The forms inserted in the first and second sentences are predicate 
verbs. Those inserted in the third and fourth sentences are infini- 
tives. So far as form is concerned, what is true of predicate verbs 
that is not true of infinitives? 

The predicate verb often changes its form, showing 
whether the subject denotes one or more than one. In 
other words, it is limited in form by its subject. Because 
of this limitation, predicate verbs are known as Finite, or 
Limited, verbs. The infinitive, however, never changes its 
form because of its subject. 

All forms of the verb except the infinitive and participle 
are finite. Infinitive means not finite, or not limited. 

Examine the following : 

STEPS ENG. — 7. 



98 GRAMMAR 

I. boy j\ studies \ grammar. 
~\The~ 



2. teacher^ expects 
~^The 



boy j \ to study \ grammar. 

We ~~ 



In the diagram of sentence i, what is the predicate, or finite, verb? 
What is its subject? In the diagram of sentence 2, what is the predi- 
cate, or finite, verb? What is its subject? What does the teacher 
expect? Does she expect the boy? Does she herself expect to 
study? What then is the object complement? How many parts has 
the object complement? Why is to study not a real predicate verb? 

A predicate verb tells or asserts something about its subject. 
Does to study tell or assert anything about its subject boy, or does 
it merely name the action that the teacher expects of him ? 

In what way does the diagram of the boy to study grammar differ 
from the diagram of The boy studies grammar? This difference 
indicates that the infinitive to study is not a real predicate. It merely 
names the action to be performed by the subject and assumes the 
doing of it. 

Definition. An Infinitive is an unlimited verb form commonly 
preceded by to and used to name an action or state without asserting 
it of a subject. 

The to is omitted when the infinitive follows the verbs bid, feel, 
hear, let, make, and see ; sometimes also after dare, help, need, 
please, and a few others ; also in a few special idiomatic construc- 
tions. 

Write sentences using these verbs in such manner that they are 
followed by the infinitive without to. 

An infinitive may be used in a sentence as an assumed 
predicate, or it may fill the office of a noun, an adjective, 
or an adverb. 

Exercise. 

Analyze or diagram the following numbered sentences, 
and tell how each infinitive is used: 



THE INFINITIVE 99 



I. The teacher wanted the boy to go to school. 



teacher ^wanted 



The whole phrase boy to go to school is the 

boy I \top-o object of wanted. To go is an infinitive 

~Tthe \to\school usec * as an assumed predicate. To school is 

• an adverbial phrase modifier of to go. Note 

LhL that the subject and predicate lines do not 

connect the infinitive with its subject, there 
being no predication. 

Remark. The word to used before the infinitive verb go, is called 
the Sign of the Infinitive, and to go taken as a whole is called the 
Infinitive. When the infinitive is used as an adjective or as an 
adverb the sign of the infinitive shows a relation between the modify- 
ing phrase and the word it modifies (see Sentences 4 and 5). 

2. To study is to improve. 

wwt . w , \ . . . To study and to i)?iprove are infinitives 

Jo study i \ to improve ' r 

- \\ is \ used as nouns; to study being the subject 

of the sentence and to improve the attribute. 

3. The dog loves to follow his master. 

To follow is an infinitive used as a noun; 
to follow 1 master nke a nQun jt is the object of the yerb /gygj; 

l oves \!lll- and like a verb it takes the complement 



I The master. 

4. Every attempt to capture the wolf failed. 

The infinitive to capture is used as an adjective 
modifier; like an adjective it modifies the meaning 
attempt A failed of the noun attempt, and like a verb it takes the 

Every complement wolf. The infinitive sign to is here 

to capture \ wolf used like a preposition to indicate a relation between 

[the the phrase capture the wolf and the noun attempt ; 

but in the diagram, to preserve the form of the in- 
finitive, this function of to is not indicated. 

5. Lucy went to visit her cousin. 

Lucy A went The infinitive to visit is here used like an adverb 

\to visit 1 cousin to modify the verb went. The infinitive sign is 

\her used as in the fourth sentence. 



6. They expect Tom to win the prize. 

7. Tom expects to win the prize. 

8. Tom is anxious to win the prize. 



IOO GRAMMAR 

9. To win the prize is an honor. 

10. The captain ordered the troops to advance. 

11. Lucy was anxious to see her cousin. 

12. Henry went to see the fire. (Went why?) 

13. The farmer has apples to sell. 

14. To shoot at crows is powder thrown away. — Gay. 

15. To converse with historians is to keep good company. 

— Bolingbroke. 

16. To throw perfume on the violet is wasteful excess. 

17. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. — Congreve. 

18. It was his duty to obey promptly . 

to obey The infinitive to obey is used as a noun, 

\ promptly \ it being in apposition with the subject it, 

It= ) \^^\duty whkh introduces the sentence. 

]his 

19. For him to obey promptly is a duty. 

F or The entire phrase/?*' him to obey promptly 

~him\ \to obey \ * s the subject of the sentence. The phrase 

him to obey is introduced by for, following 
an idiom of the language. The infinitive to 



\ promptly 

V r \ \is\duty 



W. obey is an assumed predicate. 

20. It is not all of life to live. 

21. It was his aim to settle the strike. 

22. For man to bear his fate is to conquer. 

23. For a man to die rich is a disgrace. 

24. Perseverance will help to conquer our difficulties. 



73. THE PARTICIPLE. 



The boy studying his lesson will improve. 

boy A will improve 
~~TJie 

studying \ lesson 



\his 



Note the use of the word studying in this sentence. Like an infin- 
itive, studying expresses action without asserting it of a subject. 



THE PARTICIPLE IOI 

Like a transitive verb it takes an object complement; and like 
an adjective it is used to modify the meaning of a noun. Of what 
noun does it modify the meaning? Point out its object comple- 
ment. 

From its twofold nature of verb and adjective, studying 
is called a Participle, a term that means to share or to par- 
ticipate in. 

A participle may partake of the nature of a noun ; as, 

Studying one's lesson is profitable. 

Studying \ lesson 
| one's 

is\prqfitable 

Here the word studying is a participle used as a noun, 1 it being the 
subject of the sentence. Like a verb it has an object complement, 
lesson. 

Definition. A Participle is a form of the verb (not preceded 
by to ) that partakes of the nature of an adjective or of a noun. 

Participles, when modified by adjectives, lose their power to gov- 
ern as verbs, and become abstract nouns. 

Participle : Breaking the wheel \ 

a XT t-7 i_ i • ^ . 7 77} caused an accident. 

Abstract Noun : The breaking of the wheel ) 

Participle : Eating rapidly ) . . . _ _ 

. XT „ , . , f. > is to be avoided. 

Abstract Noun : Rapid eating ) 

1 Participles used as nouns are similar in construction to infinitives used as 
nouns. Thus, 

To study \ 

> is profitable. 
Studying ) 

The infinitive and participle used in this construction are sometimes classed 
as Verbal Nouns. When thus classified, the term Gerund is used by some gramma- 
rians to designate the ing form of the verbal. Others prefer to consider both to 
study and studying infinitives, and designate the latter as the Infinitive in ing. 
The classification above has the advantage of being more easily comprehended 
by the pupil. 



102 GRAMMAR 

Participles when used immediately before nouns whose meaning 
they modify become adjectives ; thus, 

A roaring sowid was heard. 

Whispering tongues can poison truth. 

The speaker was received with ringing cheers. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. In the following sentences classify the indicated 
words and tell how each is used in the sentence : 

i. Rowing a boat is healthful exercise. 

2. The rowing of a boat is healthful exercise. 

3. Constant smoking is injurious. 

4. He was pleased at winning a prize. 

5. Reading steadily affects the eyes. 

6. Keep your working power at its maximum. 

7. See! there is Jackson, standing like a stone wall. 

8. The soldier was promoted for doing his duty. 

9. Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, onward through life he goes. 

10. Where boasting ends, there dignity begins. — Young. 

11. It is thinking makes what we read ours. — Locke. 

12. There is no great achievement that is not the result of patient 
working and waiting. — /. G. Holland. 

Ex. II. Analyze or diagram the following sentences and 
explain the use of each participle : 

1. A stream, winditig through the meadow, flows into a spar- 
kling lake. 

stream A flows Winding is a participle used as an 



A I into 1 lake adjective to modify the meaning of 

■winding sparkling stream. 

I through 1 meadow a_ Note. Sparkling is an adjective modi- 

Ythe fying lake. 

2. Doing right is obeying God's law. 

obeying \ law 
Doing 1 right J \- y God , s 



THE PARTICIPLE 103 



3. By doing nothing we learn to do ill. 

I to do 1 ill 
we A learn J 



I doing 1 nothing 



4. Praising all alike is praising none. 

5. And seeing the multitudes, he went up into a mountain. 

6. By praising a man we sometimes injure him. 

7. Mounting his horse, the general rode away. 

8. The boy was punished for running away. 

9. The squirrels playing about the Capitol are very tame. 

10. He heard his daughter's voice singing in the village choir. 

Punctuation. See Composition 107, pp. 150-152, for the use of 
the comma with non-restrictive expressions, and then account for the 
commas used in sentences 1 and 7. 

Note. When a participle with its modifiers is used to do the work 
of a noun, the whole expression may be modified as a noun ; as, 

1 1 . Good reading aloud is an accomplishment. 



reading 
aloud 



Good 



Aloud is an adverb modifying the 
meaning of the participle reading. 
Good is an adjective modifying the 
s\accomplishment whole expression reading aloud. 



12. Your writing the letter so neatly secured you the position, 
writing \ letter 
I neatly \j \the_ 



Your 



Your modifies the meaning of the 
whole phrase. 

secured \ position 



\ (for) 1 you \ the 

13. Much depends on your going now. 

14. They were sure of winning a prize. 

15. Tom's running away displeased his parents. 

child A came \ running 

16. The child ca7ne running. — yThe ~ 

Running is a participle used to complete the predicate and modify the subject 
noun child. ! 

1 Some grammarians, however, say running is used as an adverb to modify 
came ; others call it an " adverbial predicate adjective." 



104 GRAMMAR 

17. They kept him waiting. 

They A kept / waiting \ him Waiting is a participle used as a foe- 

■ M titive complement, and modifies him, 

18. The little stream ran rippling through the meadow. 

19. I can feel my heart beating. 

20. Life again knocked laughing at the door. 

21. The prisoners advanced, weeping, praying, and singing hymns. 

— Butterworth. 



74. FORMS OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

How do the participles in the preceding lesson end ? 

The Present Participle. A participle ending in ing is 
called the Present Participle, because it denotes action or 
being as still in progress ; as, playing, riding. 

The present participle is frequently used both as an adjective and 
as a noun. 

The Past Participle. When a participle denotes action 
or being as finished, it is called a Past Participle ; as, 
played, ridden. 

The past participle generally ends in d, ed, t, n, or en. Its chief 
use is in forming the passive voice and the secondary tenses of the 
verb (Gr. 161, 175, pp. 230, 255.) It is sometimes used as an adjective, 
but never as a noun. 

The Perfect Participle. When a participle denotes 
action or being as completed just before the time repre- 
sented by the predicate of the sentence, it is called a Per- 
fect Participle ; as, having played, having been playing, 
having been played. 

The perfect participle may be used either as an adjective or as a 
noun. 



THE PARTICIPLE 



05 



Preshnt Participle. Past Participle. 



Playing 



Riding 



Played 



Ridden 



Perfect Participle. 

r Having played 

< Having been playing 

I Having been played 

r Having ridden 
1 Having been riding 

I Having been ridden 



Exercise. 

Tell the different kinds of participles in the following 
sentences ; then analyze or diagram the sentences to show 
the use of each participle : 

1. John, driving through the park, met his uncle. 
John, driven through the park, met his uncle. 
John, having driven through the park, met his uncle. 
There came a thoughtful man, 

Searching nature's secrets, far and wide. 
The ground-pine curled its pretty wreath, 
Running over the club-moss burrs. — Emerson. 

6. Plunged in the battery smoke 

Right through the lines they broke. — Tennyson. 

7. Genius is an immense capacity for taking trouble. — Carlyle. 

8. But winter lingering chills the lap of May. — Goldsmith. 

9. Winds came whispering lightly from the west 
Kissing, not ruffling, the blue deep's serene. — Byron. 

10. I shall cheerfully bear the reproach of having descended below 
the dignity of history. — Macaulay. 

11. Slow rises worth, by poverty depress'd. — S.Johnson. 



75. REVIEW. 

Test Questions, i. What two forms of the verb have individual 
names ? 2. Why are predicate verbs known as finite verbs ? 3. What 
forms of the verb are not finite ? 4. In the sentence " They ordered 
him to go," why is to go not a real predicate? 5. How many uses 
may the infinitive have in a sentence ? 6. Write or select sentences 



106 GRAMMAR 

to illustrate each of the different uses of the infinitive. 7. Define a 
participle. 8. In what respect do participles differ from infinitives? 
9. In what respect are participles like verbs? 10. What uses may 
participles have in the sentence? 11. Select sentences from your 
reader to show the different uses of the participle. 12. How many- 
forms has the participle? 13. Name and describe each. 14. Com- 
pose or select ten sentences, five containing present participles and 
five containing past participles, and tell how each is used. 15. Select 
or compose five sentences containing perfect participles. 



76. PHRASES AND CLAUSES. 

Expanded Parts of Speech. The elements of a sentence 
consist of the parts of speech of which the sentence is 
composed. Two or more different parts of speech, how- 
ever, may be taken together as a single element and used 
to do the work of one part of speech. 

Observe the following sentences and note that the single 
adjective honest is expanded into groups of two or more 
parts of speech which, taken together, do the work of the 
single adjective : 

1. A ?i honest man speaks the truth. 

2. A man of honesty speaks the truth. 

3. A 7?ian that is honest speaks the trutk. 

Observe also that the group of words in the second sen- 
tence, of Jwnesty, does not contain a finite verb, or predicate, 
and that the group of words in the third sentence, that is 
honest, does contain a predicate. 

The group of words in the second sentence is called 
a Phrase. The group in the third sentence is called 
a Clause. 

In what respect are they alike? How do they differ? 



PHRASES AND CLAUSES 107 

Definitions. A Phrase is a group of words that does not con- 
tain a predicate and that is used to do the work of a single part of 
speech. 1 

A Clause is a group of words that contains a predicate and that is 
used to do the work of a single part of speech. 

Exercise. 

Tell zvhich of the following groups of words are phrases 
and which are clauses : 



To the busy bees. 

Before the rain ceased 

When the rain ceased 

As soon as the rain ceased 

To build a nest 

Building a nest 

If the wind blows 

Because the wind blows 

The birds having built the 

nest 
Being near the window 
When spring comes 



77 KINDS OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES. 

Note the indicated phrases and clauses in the sentences 
at the top of the next page, and tell for what part of speech 
each does the work : 

1 A distinction should be made between a literary phrase and a grammatical 
phrase. 

A grammatical phrase is made up of two or more different parts of speech, 
exclusive of the finite verb, that can be parsed separately, and that taken together 
do the work of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 

A literary phrase is any group of related words that convey an idea without 
making a predication ; as, Narrow walls of rock, From bowlder to bowlder. 
(Comp. 213, p. 316.) 



I. 


In the orchard 


12. 


2. 


When the skies are clear 


13- 


3- 


Swinging in the tree-top 


14. 


4- 


Filled with merry glee 


15. 


5- 


While warbling to his mate 


16. 


6. 


Before he left the tree 


17. 


7- 


To greet the rising sun 


18. 


8. 


From the branches 


19. 


9- 


Through the fields of clover 


20. 


0. 


By the rippling brooks 




1. 


While the south wind whis- 


21. 




pers 


22. 



IQ 8 GRAMMAR 

i. An earnest man finds a way. 

2. A man in earnest finds a way. 

3. A man that is in earnest^Wi- a way, 

4. A tree grows there. 

5. A tree grows in that place. 

6. A tree grows where it is planted. 

7. Labor brings reward. 

8. To labor brings reward. 

9. Whoever labors deserves reward. 

A phrase or a clause takes its particular name from the 
part of speech whose work it performs. 

In earnest is called an Adjective Phrase because it is 
used as an adjective to modify, or make more definite, the 
meaning of the noun man in the second sentence. 

Definition. An Adjective Phrase is one that does the work of 
an adjective. 

In that place is an Adverbial Phrase, used to modify the 
meaning of the verb groivs in the fifth sentence. 

Definition. An Adverbial Phrase is one that does the work of 
an adverb. 

To labor is a Noun Phrase, used as the subject of the 
eighth sentence. 

Definition. A Noun Phrase is one that does the work of a 
noun. 

Point out the Adjective Clause in the above sentences. 
What is an adjective clause ? (Make your own definition.) 

Point out the Adverbial Clause in the above sentences. 
Define an adverbial clause. 

Point out the Noun Clause in the above sentences. 
What is a noun clause ? 

Remark. Phrases are sometimes named from the part of speech 
that introduces them ; thus, in earnest may be called a Prepositional 
Phrase, it being introduced by the preposition in. This, however, 



PHRASES AND CLAUSES 109 

gives undue prominence to the structure of the phrase, rather than to 
its use, and gives prepositional phrases, owing to their frequent occur- 
rence, special prominence over others. 

It is the use, or office, of a part of speech that determines its im- 
portance in the sentence, and since a phrase is used to do the work of 
a part of speech, it is better that it take its name from the part of 
speech whose work it performs. This is true also of clauses. 

Exercise. 

Turn to p. 296 and select from the description of " The 
Eel Trap "five adjective phrases and ten adverbial phrases, 
and tell what part of speech each modifies. 



78. NOUN PHRASES. 

Note how the phrases are diagrammed in the following, 
tell how each is used in the sentence, and for what part of 
speech it stands : 

1. To ask him a question was to wind up a spring in his 
memory. 

\to wind up 1 spring 
I in 1 memory Yci 
|i* 

2. The child wanted to ask hi7n a question. 

to ask 1 question 



child A wanted 
\The 



(of) 1 him 



3. The child had no idea of asking him a question. 

child A had \ idea 

asking- 1 question 



|(g/) 1 him \a_ 



4. // is hard to ask him a question. 

to ask I question 

n \ (of) him 11 



is \ hard 



IIO GRAMMAR 

The subject of the first sentence is the phrase to ask 
him a question, and the attribute complement is the phrase 
to wind up a spring in his memory. 

In the second sentence the phrase to ask him a question 
is used as the object complement ; and in the third sen- 
tence the phrase asking him a question is used as the 
object of the preposition of. 

Thus it is clear that a noun phrase may be used as 
subject, as object complement, as attribute complement, 
as object of a preposition, and in apposition. 

Exercise. 

Diagram the following sentences according to examples 
given above: 

i. To work industriously is to gain promotion. 

2. The child hopes to win the prize. 

3. The child is capable of winning the prize. 

4. His winning the prize depends on his effort. 

5. Over the fence is out. 

6. All shouted, " Over the fence ! " 

7. In the field is over the fence. 

8. Politeness is to do and say the kindest things in the kindest 
way. 

9. To improve the golden moment of opportunity is the great art 
of life. 

10. To labor rightly and earnestly is to walk in the golden path 
of contentment. 



79. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

Analyze each of the following sentences ; note how the 
clauses are connected, and how the connecting words are 
indicated in the diagram : 



PHRASES AND CLAUSES 



III 



i. He who ordained the 
Sabbath loves the poor. 



He A loves \ poor 
\ihe~ 



who A ordained \ Sabbath 
\the 



Oral Analysis. The main part of the sentence as already given 
(page 38). Who ordained the Sabbath is an adjective clause used 
to modify the pronoun he. The connective is who. 



2. This is the artist whose 
work you admired. 



3. The freeman is he whom 
the truth makes free. 



Thi 



A is \ artist 



youhadmired \ work 

I whose 



the 



f> 



reeman 



A is \ Jhe 



truth hmakes /free \ whom 
\the ~ 



to-days 



4. Our to-days and yester- 
days are the blocks with 
which we build. 



5. Happy is the man that 
findeth wisdom. 



and 

yesterdays 




are \ blocks 



we A build 

I with 1 which 



the 



is \ Happy 



tlit 



that A findeth \ wisdom 



Observe that the words used to connect the adjective clauses in 
the preceding exercise are pronouns : who, whose, whom, which, 
and that. 

What pronoun is used as a connective in the first sentence ? To 
what word in the main part of the sentence does it directly relate as 
its antecedent? What pronoun is the connective in each of the other 
four sentences, and to what antecedent does each relate ? Why are 

these pronouns placed on a dotted line ( ) in the diagram ? Since 

they fill the office of both a conjunction and a pronoun, they may be 
properly called Conjunctive Pronouns, but 

They are commonly called Relative Pronouns. 

Tell why they are so called. 



112 GRAMMAR 

Exercise. 

Expand the adjectives in the following sentences to 
adjective clauses : 

i. Health and plenty cheer the industrious man. 

2. Regular exercise is the secret of health. 

3. A wounded soldier lay on the field of battle. 

4. A wise son maketh a glad father. 

5. A narrow mind begets obstinacy. 



80. THE CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB. 

Notice in the following that the connective when is 
equivalent to the adjective phrase on which : 

I reme?nber the day when (on which) they sailed. 
I A remember \ day I A remember \ day 



the 
when 
they A sailed 



the 
they A sailed 

\on 1 which 



The use of when in this sentence is the same.as that of the phrase 
on which ; that is, it connects the clause and as an adverb it modifies 
the verb sailed. A connective that does the work of both a conjunc- 
tion and an adverb is called a Conjunctive Adverb, and if desired its 
use both as a connective and as a modifier may be shown in the dia- 
gram (see diagram 2, p. 114.) 

Exercise. 

Analyze or diagram the following sentences and tell the 
kind of connective used in each : 

1. This is the house that Jack built. 

2. They have rights who dare (to) maintain them. 

3. We visited Titusville, where the first oil well was sunk. 



PHRASES AND CLAUSES 1 13 

4. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. 

5. There is ever a song that our hearts may hear. 

6. Smiles, which are the soul's sunshine, cost little or nothing. 

7. Longfellow, who wrote beautiful poems, lived in Cambridge. 

8. Many of the poems that he wrote were written for children. 

9. Smooth runs the water where the brook is deep. 

10. Thrice is he armed that has his quarrel just. 

11. She listened attentively to every word that was spoken. 

12. This is the place where the hero fell. 

13. He who plants kindness plants love. 

14. But the noblest thing which perished there 

Was that young faithful heart. 

15. Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle are emblems 
of deeds that are done in their clime. 

16. We visited the house which Washington occupied. 

17. He said that the town where he was born deserved all the 
attention which he gave it. 

Punctuation. Give a reason for the use of the commas in sen- 
tences 3, 6, 7. Why are the clauses in the other sentences not set off 
by commas? (See Comp. 107, pp. 150-152, for punctuation.) 



81. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 

I. Since an adverbial clause does the work of an ad- 
verb, it may be used to modify the meaning of a verb, an 
adjective, or an adverb. 

Note the adverbial clauses in the following sentences, 
determine what part of speech each modifies, and point 
out the words used as connectives : 

1. No one despises him because one f\ despises \ him 



he is poor. 



No I because 

he A is \ poor 



2. What is worse than dishon- What ^ is\-worse 



esty f 



\than 
dishonesty 'h(is) \ {bad) 



STEPS ENG. 



Ir 4 GRAMMAR 

3. He is so dishonest that no one He [\ zs\ dishonest 

trusts him. \ s0 

\that 
one ^trusts \ htm 
\no 

In these sentences the connectives because, than, and 
that are neither pronouns nor adverbs. They are used 
merely to introduce clauses and to connect them with the 
elements they modify. Connectives of this kind are called 
Subordinate Conjunctions. 

Can you tell why they are so called ? 

2. When a subordinate conjunction denotes time, place, 
manner, or degree, it is usually classified as a Conjunctive 
Adverb. If desired, its use both as a conjunction and as 
an adverb may be shown in the diagram by placing it on a 
dotted line as in diagram 2 below. Sometimes it is desir- 
able to show this double use. 

Go where duty calls thee, 
1. {You) fl Go 2. (You) ft Go 



™. he . re . duty A calls , thee 

duty A calk I th ee i ', " 

*—" ! -where 



To the Teacher. The classification of the conjunctive adverb is of slight 
grammatical importance, and its distinction in the diagram may be omitted if de- 
sired. 

Care should be taken that such distinctions do not take rank over more impor- 
tant ideas, and thus destroy the simplicity and value of the subject. 

The diagram has no equal as a device for saving time in the recitation and for 
prompting pupils to make a careful study of the use and meaning of each element 
in the sentence, but it should never lead to distinctions that bear no importance to 
the interpretation of thought or to its correct expression. 

Exercise. 

Determine the adverbial clauses in the following sen- 
tences, tell what part of speccJi each modifies, point out 
the connectives, and diagram the sentences : 



PHRASES AND CLAUSES 115 

1. I can go now for my task is finished. 

2. The colonists trusted him because he was honest and true. 

3. The daisy shuts her eye when the dew begins to fall. 

4. You will not succeed unless you persevere. 

5. Tobacco is an American plant, as Raleigh found it here. 

6. The rain comes when the wind calls. 

7. Childhood shows the man as morning shows the day. 

8. When the war closed, Washington returned to Mt. Vernon. 

9. Before the harvest is gathered, the hill slopes are bright with 
yellow pumpkins and squashes. 

10. The sea, after it had spent its fury, became calm. 

11. There is beauty in the forest when the trees are green and 

fair, 
There is beauty in the meadows when the wild flowers scent 

the air, 
There is beauty in the sunlight, and the soft blue sky 

above ; 
Oh, the -world is full of beauty when the heart is full of 

love. 

82 THE ABSOLUTE PHRASE. 

An Absolute Phrase has for its principal word a noun or 
a pronoun that is the subject only of a participle. An 
absolute phrase is an abridged clause, and is usually 
adverbial in office. Thus, 

Because our ti7ne was occupied we [\ could attend 
(adverbial clause), we could not 
attend. 



Because 



time A was occupied 
I our 

Our time being occupied (abso- ™ A could attend 
lute phrase), we could not attend. not \ 



tune I \ being occupied 
Our I 



1 In sentence 5 and some others the clauses may be said to modify the princi- 
pal member as a whole. In diagramming such sentences the clause is treated as 
though it modified the verb. 



u6 



GRAMMAR 



The use of the absolute phrase should not be confused 
with the use of a participial phrase as the subject of a 
sentence. An absolute phrase is always set off by a 
comma. A participial phrase used as a subject is never 
set off by a comma (Comp. 107, pp- 150-152). Thus : 



Absolute Phrasb. 
(Set off by comma?) 

i. He (not his) having 
arrived, the meeting was 
disorga n ized. 

meeting A was disorganized 
I the ~~T~ 



Participial Phrase as Subject. 
(Not set off by comma?) 

i. His (not he) having 
arrived disorganized the 
meeting. 

laving arrived A disorg'd \ meeting 
\HTs \The~~ 



He j \ having arrived 



2. They having re turned, 
all rejoiced. 

3. I refusing to comply, 
they withdrew. 



2. Their having returned 
caused all to rejoice. 

3. My refusing to comply 
?nade them withdraw. 



83. NOUN CLAUSES. 

Examine the following sentences and note how the 
clauses are used : 



Where the violets bloom is a secret. 



violets A bloom 



the 



Where 



is \ secret 



2. This is where the violets bloom. 



This A is 



violets A bloom 
I the I where 



PHRASES AND CLAUSES II7 



3. I know where the violets bloom. 



JL 



know 



violets A bloom 
I the I -where 



I have no knowledge of where the violets bloom. 
I A have I knowledge 



I violets A bloom 



I Mtf I where 



5. 7"/^ secret, where the violets bloo?n, was discovered by Helen. 



violets j\blvom 
\the I where 



was discovered 



1 7^£ I fo 1 Helen 

These sentences show the use of a noun clause, ( 1 ) as 
subject; (2) as attribute complement; (3) as object com- 
plement; (4) as object of a preposition; (5) as an apposi- 
tive. 

Note in the fifth sentence that the clause denotes the same thing 
as does the noun secret, which it explains. 

A clause placed after a noun or pronoun to denote the 
same person or thing, and to explain or show more clearly 
what is meant by the noun or pronoun, is called an Apposi- 
tive Noun Clause. (See page 20 for meaning of apposition^) 

Exercise. 

In the following sentences tell how the noun clauses are 
used. Diagram each sentence, observing the examples 
given above : 

1. How he escaped is still a mystery. 

2. Reputation is what 1 we seem. 

1 What is an attribute complement of seem. 



n8 



GRAMMAR 



3. Trouble teaches how much there 1 is in manhood. 

4. The good is always the road to what is true. 

5. The fact that lightning is electricity was discovered by Frank- 
lin. 

6. Whatever makes men good Christians, 2 makes them good citi- 
zens. 2 — Webster. 

7. Poor Richard's saying, " Lost time is never found again," 
should be remembered by all. 

8. Who never tries will never win. 

9. What is done wisely is done well. 

10. Who keeps one end in view makes all things serve. 



84. THE STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE. 

We have learned in Part I. that sentences are classified 
according to their form and use into declarative, interroga- 
tive, imperative, and exclamatory. We are now prepared 
to study the sentence according to its structure t or build. 



85. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 





The sun rises. 




sun /\ 


rises 


I. 


1 The 












rises 


2. 


The sun rises and sets. 
The sun and ?noon rise. 




sun 
\The 
sun 


j\ /and 
\sets 


3- 


and 

moon 


\A rise 






\The 




The sun and moon rise and set. 


sun 


rise 


4. 


and 

moon 


\k_/ an . d . 
A~ \set 






\The 



1 There is an expletive. 

2 Christians and citizens are factitive complements. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE I J 9 

Each of these sentences consists of but one combination 
of subject and predicate. 

In the second sentence the predicate is compound. What is a 
compound predicate ? Which sentence contains a compound subject ? 
Which contains both a compound subject and a compound predicate ? 

These sentences are called Simple Sentences. 

Definition. A Simple Sentence is one that contains but one 
subject and one predicate. Either or both of these may be 
compound. 

It should be remembered that this classification depends wholly 
upon the structure of the sentence, and not upon the simplicity or 
complexity of thought. A sentence may be long and involved, 
having both the subject and the predicate modified by words and 
phrases; yet it is simple as long as it contains but one subject and 
one predicate. 

Exercise. 

The following are simple sentences ; analyze or diagram 
each : 

i. The sun and ?noon rise in the east and set i)i the west. 

sun rise 

\ / I in | east 

and \ I / „„j r,r 



2. The Dutch mansion was usually built of brick. 

3. Its gable-end, receding in regular steps from the base of the 
roof to the summit, faced the street. 

4. The front door was decorated with a huge brass knocker, bur- 
nished daily. 

5. The Connecticut mistress spun, wove, and stored her household 
linens in crowded chests. 

6. The Dutch matron scrubbed and scoured her polished floor and 
woodwork. 



•I20 GRAMMAR 

7. The happy burghers breakfasted at dawn, dined at eleven, and 
retired at sunset. 

8. Along the Hudson the great patroons, supported by their 
immense estates and crowds of tenants, kept up the customs of the 
best European society of the day. 



86. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

1. Where law ends, tyranny begins, 
tyranny A begins 

I Where 

law \ ends 



2. Whoso diggeth a pit shall fall therein. 

Whoso A diggeth \ pit ft 
V- 11 shall fall 



therein 

Each of these sentences contains two combinations of 
subject and predicate. 

What are these combinations in the first sentence ? In the second 
sentence? 

In the first sentence the part ty vanity begins contains 
the principal subject and predicate of the sentence and is 
called the main part, or Principal Member, of the sentence. 
The clause Where law ends also contains a subject and 
predicate, but they are of lower rank than the subject and 
predicate of the principal member. In use, a clause is 
always subordinate, that is, of lower rank, since it does the 
work of a single part of speech. It usually depends on 
some other part of the sentence for its meaning. 

In the second sentence the principal member is the 
entire sentence, and the clause forms a part of it — the 
subject. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 121 

To the Teacher. The term clause is loosely used in many text-books on 
Rhetoric and Grammar to name any part of a sentence containing a subject and 
predicate. In this book the use of the term is restricted to subordinate proposi- 
tions, and the term member is used to name the principal, or coordinate, parts of 
a sentence. 

A sentence containing one principal member and one or 
more clauses, used either as a part of the principal mem- 
ber or as a modifier in the sentence, is called a Complex 
Sentence. More briefly, 

Definition. A Complex Sentence is one that contains one prin- 
cipal member and one or more clauses. 

Exercise. 

Tell which of the following sentences are simple and 
which are complex. Give reason for your classification : 

i. Order is Heaven's first law. — Pope. 

2. They also serve who only stand and wait. — Milton. 

3. Noble architecture is one element of patriotism. 

4. Heaven and earth are threads of the same loom. — Tennyson. 

5. He is the freeman whom the truth makes free.— Cowper. 

6. He that only rules by terror doth grievous wrong. — Tenny- 
son. 

7. God has made America the schoolhouse of the world.— Col. 
Parker. 

8. He that leans on his own strength leans on a broken reed. 

9. A fault which humbles a man is of more use to him than a 
good action which puffs him up with pride. — Tho?nas Wilson. 

10. They are never alone that are accompanied by noble 
thoughts. — Sir Philip Sydney. 

11. The silent falling of the snow is to me one of the most solemn 
things in nature. — Long fellow . 

12. Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God. — Coleridge. 

13. The world is all gates, all opportunities, strings of tension 
waiting to be struck. — Emerson. 

14. Be ready for opportunity when it comes. 



22 GRAMMAR 



87. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

i . A lot was cleared. 

2. A fence was built. 

3. The future president split the rails. 

Notice that these sentences are closely related in 
meaning, the second and the third being a continuation 
of the thought expressed by the first. 

When two or more sentences are closely related in 
thought they may be united as Members of one sentence ; 
as, 

A lot was cleared, a fence was built, and the future president 
split the rails} 

lot A was cleared fence A was built president A split \ rails 

"~p ]( a . n . d .).r~ri L?**| future 



the 



No one of these members depends on another for its 
meaning; each retains its own subject and predicate; and 
all are equally important. Hence they are principal mem- 
bers, and are called coordinate because they are of equal 
" order " or rank. Coordinate means equal in rank. 

A sentence made up of coordinate members is called a 
Compound Sentence. 

Any or all the members of a compound sentence may contain one 
or more clauses, thus making the member, or members, complex ; 
but the sentence is still compound. 

Refer to the illustrative sentence above, and note that each member 
is a simple sentence. 

Sentences 1 and 2 on the next page are compound. 

Note that in 1 one member is simple and the other complex. 

1 If all the members of a compound sentence can not be diagrammed on 
one line, the connection may be indicated as follows : fence j\ was built 



. president A split \ rails 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 123 

Which member is simple, and which complex? How many mem- 
bers has the second sentence? Are these members simple or 
complex? 

1. A cruel story runs on wheels, and every hand oils the wheels 
as they run. 

story A runs hand A oils \ wheels 

I cruel I on \ wheels [ a . n ...\ I every 



Tthf 
as 



2. / slept and dreamed that life is beauty ; 
I woke and found that life is duty. 



1 slept 
l\_/and 

\ dreamed 



woke 



that 

life ^ is\beauty _3L/™f? 

' found 




Hand) 



that t 

life A is\duty 



Definition. A Compound Sentence is one that is composed of 
coordinate members. Each of these may be simple or complex. 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Select from Composition 104, 205 (//. 144, 145, 
306), five simple sentences, five complex sentences, and five 
compound sentences. 

Ex. II. Classify the following sentences as to structure 
{simple, complex, or compound), and give reasons for your 
classification : 

1. Raindrops and rills have their work to do. 

2. We have met the enemy, and they are ours. 

3. He who praises everybody praises nobody. — fohnson. 

4. My father would not go abroad, nor would he allow me to go. 

5. Slow are the steps of freedom, but her feet turn never back- 
wards. — Lowell. 

6. A single grateful thought towards heaven is the most complete 
prayer. — Lessing. 



124 GRAMMAR 

7. If I can't pray, I will not make believe. — Longfellow. 

8. There is always room for a man of force, and he makes room 
for many. — Emerson. 

9. Capital is not what a man has, but what a man is. 

10. No fountain is so small that heaven may not be imaged on its 
bosom. — Hawthorne. 

11. Even those who do nothing which a reasonable man would call 
labor imagine themselves to be doing something, and there is no one 
who would willingly be thought quite an idler in the world. 

— Humboldt. 

12. " Honesty is the best policy," but he who acts on that prin- 
ciple is not an honest man. — Archbishop Whately. 

13. He is not worthy of the honey-comb who shuns the hive be- 
cause the bees have stings. — Shakespeare. 

14. The busy world shoves angrily aside 

The man who stands with arms akimbo set, 
Until the occasion tells him what to do ; 
And he who waits to have his task marked out 
Shall die and leave his errand unfulfilled. 

15. The noblest men that live on earth, 

Are men whose hands are brown with toil \ 
Who, backed by no ancestral graves, 

Hew down the woods, and till the soil ; 
And win thereby a prouder name 
Than follows king's or warrior's fame. 



88 COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 

The members of compound sentences being coordinate 
(equal in rank), the conjunctions (Gr. 26, p. 43) used to 
unite them are called Coordinate Conjunctions. The co- 
ordinate conjunctions in most common use are and, or, nor, 
and but. 

Many words usually and naturally adverbs are sometimes used to 
join grammatical structures of equal rank, and therefore become co- 
ordinate conjunctions. .The most common ones are also, accordingly, 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 12$ 

besides, consequently, else, furthermore, hence, however, likewise, more- 
over, nevertheless, only, otherwise, still, then, therefore, so, and yet. 

When these words are used as conjunctions, and, or, nor, or but 
can be substituted for them or supplied before them without materially 
changing the meaning ; as, 

i. The day is warm; nevertheless (coord, conj.) it is pleasant, 
may be changed to 

The day is warm, but nevertheless (adverb) it is pleasant. 

2. Be obedient, else (coord, conj.) / will punish you, may be 
changed to 

Be obedient or else (adverb) / will punish you. 

3. He was determined, yet (coord, conj.) he was quiet, may be 
changed to 

He was determined, and yet (adverb) he was quiet. 



89. MEMBERS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES RELATED 
IN THOUGHT. 

Care should be taken not to unite unrelated thoughts 
in forming compound sentences, as has been done in the 
following : 

A lot was cleared, a fence was built, and Lincoln addressed the 
people from the steps of the Capitol. 

The fact stated in the last member of this sentence 
bears no relation to the part that precedes, and should be 
stated separately. (Comp. 104, pp. 146, 147.) Other ex- 
amples of improper sentences are : 

1. We went to cooking school on Friday, and Dewey captured 
Manila. 

2. Grandfather lives on a farm ; the train went very fast, and 
the day was pleasant, and Grandfather met us at the station. 

— From a School Exercise* 



126 GRAMMAR 

Exercise. 

From the following sets of simple sentences form complex 
sentences, and then change each to a compound sentence. 
Tell the kind of connective used with each sentence formed. 

Example. The Coast Plain has many rivers. They afford good 
water power. 

Complex : The Coast Plain has many rivers, which afford 
good water power. The connective which is a relative pronoun. 

Compound : The Coast Plain has many rivers, and they afford 
good water power. The connective and is a coordinate conjunction. 

i. All these rivers are navigable. They run almost parallel with 
one another. 

2. We visited the great cathedral. There we saw the famous pic- 
tures by Rubens. 

3. We stood in front of the tomb. The old guide told about the 
last resting place of the Washingtons. 

4. We were in the steel works. We saw sheets of armor plate for 
the battleship " Pennsylvania." 

5. The work is perplexing and difficult. The workmen wear 
thick leather gloves. 

6. The cat's away. The mice will play. 

To the Teacher. Pupils should be given additional exercise in the analy- 
sis and synthesis of sentences, as the need of the class requires. Comp. 42, 58, 
and 100 on pp. 62, 79, 139, 140, will furnish good material for such drill. The sen- 
tences should be analyzed, and the complex and compound sentences resolved into 
simple sentences. The teacher may select simple sentences for the pupils to com- 
bine into complex or compound sentences. 



90. SUMMARY OF THE SENTENCE. 

Structure and Use. 

1. A Sentence is the complete expression of a thought in 
words. 

In writing, a sentence is marked at its close by a period, 
an interrogation point, or an exclamation point. 



SUMMARY OF THE SENTENCE 127 

2. The Elements of the sentence are Subject, Predicate, 
Complement, Modifier, and Connective. 

Excepting the predicate and the connective, each of 
these five elements may consist of a word, a phrase, or a 
clause. 

3. A Phrase is a group of words that does not contain 
a predicate and that is used to do the work of a single part 
of speech. (Gr. 76, p. 107.) 

4. A Clause is a group of words that contains a predi- 
cate and is used to do the work of a single part of speech. 
(Gr. 76, p. 107.) 

5. According to its use or form, a sentence is Declara- 
tive, Imperative, or Interrogative ; also it may or may not 
be Exclamatory. 

6. According to its structure, a sentence is Simple, 
Complex, or Compound. 

7. A Simple Sentence is one that contains but one sub- 
ject and one predicate. Either or both of these may be 
compound. (Gr. 85, p. 119.) 

8. A Complex Sentence is one that contains one prin- 
cipal member and one or more clauses. (Gr. 86.) 

9. A Compound Sentence is one that is made up of 
coordinate members. (Gr. 87.) The members, being 
equal in rank, are connected by coordinate conjunctions, 
expressed or understood. 

10. A Coordinate Conjunction connects words or groups 
of words that are equal in rank, or are in the same gram- 
matical construction. 

11. A Subordinate Conjunction is one which, placed be- 
fore a sentence, changes it into a clause, and, if the clause 
is a modifier, joins it to whatever is modified. 



128 GRAMMAR 

Punctuation. 

12. A sentence is punctuated according to its structure 
and use. 

13. A Simple Declarative Sentence states or declares 
something, and, if not exclamatory, should be marked at 
its close by a period ; if exclamatory, it should be marked 
by an exclamation point. Thus, 

1. Man is a wonderful piece of work. 

2. He seems to enjoy himself very much. 

3. What a wonderful piece of work is man / 

4. How he does enjoy himself! 

14. A Simple Interrogative Sentence is one used to ask 
a question, and, if not exclamatory, should be marked at 
its close by an interrogation point. Thus, 

5. Wasn't that music grand? 

6. Doesn't he enjoy himself! 

15. A Simple Imperative Sentence is used to express a 
command or an entreaty, and, if not exclamatory, should be 
marked at its close by a period. Thus, 

7. Cling to thy home. 

8. Cling to thy home ! 

9. Close the door. 

10. Close the door quick ! 

11. Lead us to some far-off sunny isle. 

12. Lead us to victory or to death ! 

1 3 . Send for a physician. 

14. Send for a physician at once ! 

16. A Complex Declarative Sentence states or declares 
something. It should be marked at its close by a period, 
by an exclamation point, or by the terminal mark of a 
direct quotation closing the sentence. Thus, 

15. The man asked whether your son was at home. 

16. The man asked, " Is your son at home? " 



SUMMARY OF THE SENTENCE 129 

17. " Is your son at home f " asked the gentleman. 

18. The answer was, " Why do you ask f " 

19. " £^0 is who ? " z> the question. 

20. Z#£ query is, " W 7 ^ zj w/ztf ? " 

21. £fV shall soon see who is who. 

22. The reply came, " //'j- ^^r^ /<? zV/z 7 ." 

23. //cw he does enjoy hi?nself when he is at ho?ne / 

1 7. A Complex Interrogative Sentence is used to ask a 
question. It should be marked at its close by an interro- 
gation point, by an exclamation point, or by the terminal 
mark of a quoted question closing the sentence. Thus, 

24. Did the teacher say, " Your answer is wrong, John " f 

25. Why. do you ask, " Where are you going, John t " 

26. Who wrote, " / would not live alway " .? 

27. /^/fo asked, " Would you like to live always ? " 

28. ZW.r ;z<?/ //£<? Bible command, " Swear not at all" ? 

29. Jf zz<? exclaimed, " Charge for the batteries " .? 

30. fF/^j/ do you ask, " Did he charge for the batteries f " 

3 1 . Z>/^/ //£<? teacher tell you your answer was w?'ong, John ? 

32. Jf7z<? wrote that he didn't want to live always ? 

33. W 7 /^/ do you ask where I am going? 

Note. In 24, 26, 28, and 29, the interrogation points belong to the 
sentences ; hence they follow the quotation marks. In 25, 27, and 30, 
the interrogation points belong to tne clauses ; hence they are fol- 
lowed by the quotation marks. In 31, 32, and 33, the clauses are 
indirect quotations ; hence no difficulties arise. 

18. A Complex Imperative Sentence is used to express a 
command or an entreaty. It should be marked at its close 
by a period, by an exclamation point, or by the terminal 
mark of a direct quotation closing the sentence. Thus, 

34. Ask yourself often whether your action is right. 

35. Stand where you are! 

36. Ask yourself often, " Is my action right ? " 

37. Read more slowly, " He giveth his beloved sleepy 

38. Read more forcibly , " Charge for the batteries / " 

STEPS ENG. — 9. 



130 GRAMMAR 

19. Only the members of Compound Sentences are dis- 
tinguished as to their use, and not the sentence as a 
whole. Thus, 

39. Where are you? and who are you? (A compound sentence, 
each of whose members, when standing alone, is a simple interroga- 
tive sentence.) 

40. A gaudy verbosity is always eloquence in the opinio?i of him 
who writes itj but what is the effect upon the reader? (A compound 
sentence, the first of whose members, when standing alone, is a com- 
plex declarative sentence ; and the second, a simple interrogative 
sentence.) 

41. Live as though life were earnest, and life will be so. (A com- 
pound sentence, of which the first member, when standing alone, is 
a complex imperative sentence ; and the second member, a simple 
declarative sentence.) 

91. REVIEW. 

Exercise. From dictation write and punctuate the forty- 
one sentences given in 90, and be able to assign a reason for 
each mark of punctuation used. 

Test Questions, l. What are the elements of a sentence? 
2. What is a phrase? 3. How does a phrase differ from a clause? 
4. How can you change the sentence "The boy studies" into 
a clause? 5. What is a subordinate conjunction? 6. Name the 
different kinds of phrases and clauses according to their use in the 
sentence. 7. How are adjective clauses connected? 8. What con- 
nectives are used with adverbial clauses? 9. Select or compose five 
sentences that contain subordinate conjunctions, and tell the class 
of each sentence. 10. Select or compose sentences to show five dif- 
ferent uses of the noun clause. 11. According to structure, how are 
sentences classified. 12. What is the difference between a complex 
sentence and a compound sentence? 13. Select from Composition 
42 (p. 62), sentences to illustrate as many of the different kinds of 
sentences as you can. 



II. COMPOSITION. 

ACTS THAT SHOW FEELING. PUNCTUATION. 



92. ACTS DUE TO FEELING. 

The following selection contains some suggestions of a 
kind different from any yet considered. See whether you 
can discover them : 

Heavy Hearts. 

"That reminds me," said Meg, "that I've something to tell. It 
isn't funny, like Jo's story, but I thought about it a good deal as I 
came home. At the Kings' to-day I found everybody in a flurry, and 
one of the children said that her oldest brother had done something 
dreadful and her papa had sent him away. I heard Mrs. King cry- 
ing and Mr. King talking very loud, and Grace and Ellen turned 
away their faces when they passed me, so I shouldn't see how red 
their eyes were. I didn't ask any questions, of course ; but I felt 
very sorry for them, and was glad I hadn't any wild brothers to do 
wicked things and disgrace the family." 

— Louisa M. Alcott in "Little Women''' 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Why was everybody in a flurry? Why was Mrs. King 
crying? Why was Mr. King talking loud? Why did Grace and 
Ellen turn their faces? Why were their eyes red ? Why is there an 
apostrophe (' ) after the s in Kings' 1 ? Why the other apostrophes? 

Ex. II. Tell in class exactly what you saw a boy do when his 
mother refused to let him go where he wished to go. 

Tell in class what you saw a boy do when his father handed him 
a pair of new skates. 

131 



132 COMPOSITION 

Tell in class what you saw a girl do when she was told she might 
take an unexpected pleasure trip. 

Tell in class what you saw a woman do when she was told that the 
telegraph boy was at the door. 

Tell in class what you saw a man do when he hit his finger with a 
hammer. 

Tell in class what you saw a cat do when it found itself facing a 
strange dog. 

Tell in class what you saw a pair of birds do when a boy began 
to climb the tree in which their nest was built. 

Tell in class what you saw a girl do when she thought a dog was 
about to bite a child whom she had no possible means of helping. 



93. MERTON'S PROMISE. 

Read the following selection, watching for every sug- 
gestion : 

"All right, Merton," I said; "you shall have the book and a 
breech-loading shotgun also. ..." 

The boy was almost overwhelmed. He came to me and took my 
hand in both his own. 

"Oh, papa!" he faltered, and his eyes were moist, "did you say 
a gun?" 

"Yes, a breech-loading gun on one condition, — that you'll not 
smoke till after you are twenty-one. A growing boy can't smoke with 
safety." 

He gave my hand a quick, strong pressure, and was immediately 
at the farther end of the store, blowing his nose suspiciously. I 
chuckled to myself : " I want no better promise. A gun will cure him 
of cigarettes better than a tract would." — Selected. 

Exercise. 

Why was Merton almost overwhelmed? Why did he take his 
father's hand in both his own ? Why did he falter when he began to 
speak? Why were his eyes moist? Why did he give his father's 
hand a quick, strong pressure? Why did he at once go to the 
farther end of the store? Why was he blowing his nose? 



ACTS THAT SHOW FEELING 133 

94. ACTS DUE TO FEELING. 

The acts you told of in the second exercise of 92 were 
due to feeling. So, too, in 93 Merton's acts are all due 
to his feelings. He is surprised, for the promise comes 
unexpectedly ; he is delighted, for a gun, long and eagerly 
wished for, has seemed an impossibility ; he is thankful ; 
he is appreciative. These feelings of surprise, delight, 
thankfulness, and appreciation are made known to us by 
what he does. The strength of these various feelings is 
shown by the fact that he rushes to the farther end of the 
store. He will not let his father see that he has lost his 
self-control, and that tears are on his cheeks. 

Feelings, then, may be suggested by what one does. In 
fact, we are continually telling those about us what our 
feelings are, by the expression of the face, by the tones of 
the voice, by the motions of the head, of the hands, and 
of the body, and by the things we do. The last selection 
shows how such acts are used by authors. 

We have seen that these acts make us know Merton's 
feelings. But we must not forget that acts as a rule make 
known character, or what a person always is. So from 
these acts, besides learning Merton's feelings, we also learn 
that he is a manly, sensitive boy, and we feel that as a rule 
he acts honorably and nobly. That is, the same acts that 
make us know his feelings also make us know his character. 

We shall find, then, that acts often show both feelings 
and character. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. From the selection in 93 what have you learned about 
Merton's father? What kind of man is he ? 

Notice how the quotation marks are used. Note that all explana- 



134 COMPOSITION 

tions inserted by the writer are excluded from the quotation marks. 
Notice further that such explanations are set off from the quotation 
by means of commas or of other punctuation marks. Note again 
that each speech forms a paragraph by itself. What do the four 
periods at the end of the first paragraph mean? Notice that Merton 
and papa are set off by commas. They are words used in address- 
ing the person spoken to, and such words are always set off by 
commas. 

Ex. II. Write a conversation that you have heard between a 
son or daughter and mother or father, during which one of the speak- 
ers has acted in a way to suggest his feelings. For example, a boy 
has been refused permission to go somewhere or to do something; 
what did he say and how did he act? A father has brought his 
daughter a present ; a father has told his son of a new bicycle, or of 
a trip to grandfather's, or of a hunting trip ; a mother has told her 
daughter of friends who are coming, or of a Hallowe'en party, or of a 
new dress. Be sure to write from experience. 



95. SUGGESTION OF FEELINGS. 

Ex. I. Turn to the selection on pages 65, 66, and examine it 
for suggestions of feelings, answering the following questions : 

Why did Oliver spring forward ? Why did the dog crouch at his 
feet? Why did Oliver catch the dog in his arms? Why did he start 
for the boys? Why did they dodge behind the tree-trunks? Why 
Oliver's indifferent tone? Why did his eyes flash? Why does he 
speak as he does to the officer? 

Ex. II. Write a friendly letter to your cousin, making known 
character and feelings by means of things done. Tell of acts that 
you have seen. Make your letter a brief character sketch of a boy 
or girl you know. Try to select acts that show his character as you 
know it. 

Be sure that in form and punctuation your letter is in harmony 
with the form given in 57, p. 78. 

Cut a slip of paper into the shape of an envelope and address this 
letter in proper form. 



ACTS THAT SHOW FEELING 1 35 

96. THE RESCUE. 

Read the following selection, watching especially for 
acts suggestive of feelings : 

Running as I never ran before, I followed, reached the bank where 
there was an eddy in the stream, sprang in up to my waist, and 
dragged them [Bobsey, the child who had fallen into the creek, and 
Junior, the lad who had jumped in and brought him to a shallow- 
place] to solid ground. Merton and Winnie meanwhile stood near 
with white faces. 

Bobsey was conscious, . . . and I was soon able to restore him so 
that he could stand on his feet and cry, "I — I — w — won't d — do so 
any — any more." 

Junior, meanwhile, had . . . seated himself upon a rock, emptied 
the water out of his shoes, and was tying them on again/at the same 
time striving with all his might to maintain a stolid composure under 
Winnie's embraces and Merton's interrupted handshakings. But 
when, having become assured of Bobsey's safety, I rushed forward 
and embraced Junior, his lips began to quiver, and two great tears 
mingled with the water that was dripping from his hair. Suddenly he 
broke away, took to his heels, and ran towards his home, as if he had 
been caught in some mischief and the constable were after him. 

I carried Bobsey home. 

Mrs. Jones [Junior's mother] came over, and we made her rubicund 
face beam and grow more round, if possible, as we all praised her 
boy. I returned with her, for I felt that I wished to thank Junior 
again. But he saw me coming, and slipped out at the back door. 

— Adapted. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Why did the father, who is telling the story, run so 
rapidly? Why did he spring in up to his waist? Was it necessary? 
Why the white faces ? What is indicated by the dashes in Bobsey's 
sentence ? Why did the father embrace Junior ? 

Is Junior's seating himself on the rock, etc., due to his feelings, to 
his character, or to both ? Why does he try to maintain a stolid com- 
posure ? Why the embraces and handshakings? Why the rush for- 
ward, etc.? Why the quiver of the lip and the tears? Why does 
Junior run home? Why did Mrs. Jones's face beam and grow 
rounder? Why did Junior slip out at the back door? 




The Artist. 



<3* 



NARRATIVES 137 

What do you conclude about the character of the father? Of Jun- 
ior ? Upon what do you base your opinion ? 

Ex. II. Tell the class or a friend of a more or less thrilling 
rescue you have made or seen. 

Write an account of the same incident, using only short sentences. 
Try to be suggestive, to tell of acts that hint at feelings or character 
in all you write. 

Tell or write of a boy or girl who exercised self-control when under 
some especially strong feeling, — when hurt, when embarrassed, when 
nervous, when delighted, when frightened. Be sure to include all the 
suggestive details which made you know his feeling and which 
showed how he was trying to conceal it. 

97. THE ARTIST. 

After the Painting by Von Toussaint. 

Ex. I. What is in the lower left corner of the picture? Why 
has the boy his cap on? Where did he get the crayon or charcoal 
with which he his making his picture? What does the expression of 
his face seem to tell about his feelings? Does he know that grand- 
ma is behind him? Whose portrait is he drawing? How do you 
know? Why has the smaller girl forgotten all about her dolly? 
What does her expression seem to suggest? Why is her thumb at 
her lips? 

Assume the position and expression of the larger girl as nearly 
as possible, — body, face, hands, fingers. Does your position t now 
seem to kindle any feeling within you? What feeling does the girl's 
face suggest? If she were wanting grandmother to come would her 
fingers be in the position they are in ? In what position then? Does 
grandma approve or disapprove of her new portrait? Why your 
answer? Does the position of her hands tell anything of her moods 
or feelings? Suppose she were in some other mood, how would she 
be holding her hands ? Illustrate with your own hands. What has 
grandma been doing? 

Are these people poor, rich, or in moderate circumstances? Is 
there anything to tell whether this is a scene in the United States? 
Do you think these children are as a rule good or naughty? Why? 

Ex. II. Write a story suggested by this picture. Tell, if you 



138 COMPOSITION 

wish, of the events that have just preceded the moment pictured, and 
the events that follow soon after ; or tell an entirely imaginary story 
in which these children are introduced. If you prefer, tell of some 
experience of your own in making pictures. 



98. POSTAL CARDS. 

Exercise. Cut a slip of heavy paper or cardboard 3^ by 5^ 
inches. This represents a United States postal card. On one side 
indicate the place for the stamp near the upper right corner. On this 
side address your card to Joseph Howe Company, Penn Avenue and 
Fifth Street, Columbus, O. Use proper abbreviations, and punctuate 
and capitalize correctly. On the other side, writing the long way 
of the card, ask this firm to send you a copy of their- latest cata- 
logue. Will it be necessary on a postal card to include that part 
of the perfect letter form called the address ? Why your answer ? 
Will it be correct to omit any other parts of the perfect letter 
form ? 

Write another postal card, this time asking the postmaster at Clar- 
ion, Clarion County, Pennsylvania, to forward to you at your home 
address any letters for you that may be sent to his office. In address- 
ing the card, in place of the name use the words " Post Master." 



99. WORDS TO WATCH. 

Ain't is a form often used for am not, is not, or are not. This 
form is incorrect. The contraction I'm not may be used. You're 
not, He isn't, and They're not are also allowable, as are We're not 
and We, You, or They aren't. But never use " ain't." 



Exercise. 

Insert the proper contraction : 

He at home to-day. They willing to stay till 

6 o'clock. The boy studying to suit his father. You 

doing all you should for him. I going to the 



city. We invited to the picnic. 



ACTS THAT SHOW FEELING 139 



100. DRIVING HOME THE COWS. 

Out of the clover and blue-eyed grass 
He turned them into the river lane ; 

One after another he let them pass, 
Then fastened the meadow bars again. 

Under the willows and over the hills 
He patiently followed their sober pace ; 

The merry whistle for once was still, 
And something shadowed the sunny face. 

Only a boy ! And his father had said 
He never could let his youngest go ; 

Two already were lying dead 
Under the feet of the trampling foe. 

But after the evening's work was done, 
And the frogs were loud in the meadow-swamp, 

Over his shoulder he slung his gun, 
And stealthily followed the foot-path damp ; 

Across the river and through the wheat, 
With resolute heart and purpose grim ; 

Though the dew was on his hurrying feet 
And the blind bat's flitting startled him. 

Thrice since then had the lanes been white, 
And the orchard sweet with apple-bloom ; 

And now, when the cows came back at night, 
The feeble father drove them home. 

For news had come to the lonely farm 
That three were lying where two had lain; 

And the old man's tremulous, palsied arm 
Could never lean on a son's again. 



The summer day grew cool and late ; 

He went for the cows when the work was done : 
But down the lane as he opened the gate 

He saw them coming, one by one : 



140 COMPOSITION 

Brindle, Ebony, Speckle, and Bess, 

Shaking their horns in the evening wind ; 

Cropping the buttercups out of the grass; 
But who was it following close behind? 

Loosely swung in the idle air 

An empty sleeve of army blue ; 
And worn and pale from the crisping hair, 

Looked out a face that the father knew. 

The great tears sprang to their meeting eyes, 

For the heart must speak when the lips are dumb ; 

And under the silent evening skies 

Together they followed the cattle home. 

— Kate Putna?n Osgood, in " Harper's Magazine." 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Why is the whistle still? Why the sunny face shad- 
owed? Who has said "Only a boy"? Does the son agree? Do 
we now sympathize with the father or with the son? Why does 
he go stealthily ? Where is he going ? Why is this sturdy young 
man startled by the bat? What makes us know the length of time 
that intervenes before the second part of the poem? Would it be 
better to say that the son had lost an arm than thus to make it known 
indirectly? Why the tears? Why are the lips dumb? 

With closed eyes try to see clearly the pictures suggested by each 
line of the poem. Try to smell the clover and to hear the rustle of 
the willows, as well as really to enjoy the sweetness of the orchard. 
In each line determine upon the one or two words that especially 
appeal to the feelings. 

Ex. II. Write a paragraph about a boy or a girl in the woods. 
Try to suggest a half dozen pictures, remembering that almost 
every line in this poem suggests a picture. 

Have one of your grandparents or an aged friend tell you about 
an incident connected with the war ; then write an account of it. 

Write an imaginary story of the life of this young man during the 
three years he was away. Tell of his reaching the army, of his being 
wounded, of his hospital experience, and of his trip home. 



PUNCTUATION 141 

101. THE COMMA. 

Punctuation marks are used in order that the reader 
may get the writer's meaning with the least possible effort. 
A punctuation mark should never be used unless it adds 
to clearness. 

The fact that the comma is frequently used, even by 

educated persons, when it is neither necessary nor helpful, 

suggests the following rule for punctuation : 

Never use a comma unless its presence will make the meaning 
clearer. 

It has been shown in 94> Ex. L, p. 134, that words and 

expressions used in addressing a person are set off by a 

comma or by commas. The rule is this : 

Set off with a comma or with commas every word or expression 
naming a person addressed (Gr. 6, p. 15) ; as, John, hand me the 
book. Hand me the book, my little lad. Will you, dea v boy, hand 
me the book f 

Exercise. 

Insert the necessary commas : 

" The entertainment ladies and gentlemen will begin in five min- 
utes." " Will you come in John ? " " No John I cannot let you go." 
" I think daughter you should hurry." " No sir I can not do it." 
" Come again soon Ruth." " Will you father? " " I am sure ma'am 
that you dropped this." "Pardon me sir but you are mistaken." 
She replied, " No mamma I was not present." "At what hour mother 
will you start ? " " Will you my dear friends come nearer the front? " 
" Friend will you kindly tell me the time ? " " Four o'clock sir." 
"Thank you ma'am." 



102. THE COMMA {Continued). 

I like Irving' s life of Goldstnith a great deal better than the more 
authoritative life by Forster, and I think there is a deeper and 
sweeter sense of Goldsmith in it. — W. D. How el Is. 

In the above sentence put a period in place of the comma after 



142 COMPOSITION 

Forster. What effect does it have upon the part of the sentence 
preceding the comma ? Omit the and following the comma. What 
effect does the change to a period have on all that follows ? 

Of how many independent statements, then, is the sentence quoted 
made up? What connecting word binds them together? What 
punctuation mark precedes this connecting word? If the statements 
are written separately what punctuation mark should be used? Why? 

Examine the following sentences, see of how many state- 
ments each is composed, note the punctuation of each, and 
determine what change in punctuation should take place if 
the statements were written separately : 

Justice is the end of the law, and love is the work of the ruler. 

Mr. Howells's people are like those I have known, while Mr. 
James's are mostly of a sort I have never known. 

It is easy to struggle, but the hardest thing in the world is- to 
surrender. 

No evil agency can harm the dead, but the living are in constant 
danger. 

Clowns are best in their own company, but gentlemen are best 
everywhere. 

To think a score of times of helping your neighbor is good, but to 
him only once is far better. 



Determine how the following sentences differ from the 
ones just quoted : 

Since the time of Addisoji English prose has steadily broadened in 
range and increased in literary impoi'tance. 

Defoe at sixty turned from journalism and pamphleteering and 
Produced '" Robinson Crusoe.'''' 

With one hundred and forty dollars Bayard Taylor crossed the 
ocean and spent two years in Europe. 

What do these sentences lack that the earlier ones have? Are the 
separate statements complete in each of the sentences ? If not, what 
is lacking? Compare the length of the final statements in these sen- 
tences with the length of the final statements in the earlier ones. 

From these various sentences may be drawn the follow- 
ing rule : 



PUNCTUATION 143 

When one complete statement is joined to another complete 
statement by such connectives as and, but, etc., use a comma at the 
end of the first statement. When the statements are brief or have 
the same grammatical subject, the comma is usually omitted. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Examine the selections in 31, 52 and 106 (pp. 50, 74, 75, 
148, 149), and determine which commas are governed by this principle. 
Also determine all points at which the comma is omitted because 
the statements are closely connected in meaning and are brief. 

Examine in a similar manner several pages in your reader. 

Examine in a similar manner several compositions that you have 
written, inserting commas wherever they are required by this prin- 
ciple. 

Ex. II. Combine each of the following pairs of state- 
ments by means of a suitable connective, and insert the 
required commas: 

1. Words are wise men's counters. They are the money of fools. 

2. There are plenty of libraries, books, and newspapers. There 
are too few thinkers. 

3. True friendship is a plant of slow growth. It must long 
undergo and withstand the shocks of adversity. 

4. Gratitude is the fairest blossom that springs from the soul. 
The heart of man knows none more fragrant. 

5. The great man does not lose his child's heart. He never 
knows his greatness. 

6. We should pass no man without hailing him. If he needs help 
we should give him supplies. 

7. Life without love can be borne. Life without honor can never 
be endured. 

8. The Golden age is not behind us. It is before us. 

9. Lowliness is the base of every virtue. He who goes the 
lowest builds the safest. 

10. Ignorance never vaults into knowledge. It passes into it by 
many steps. 

11. Thoughtlessness may be pardoned in young children. In men 
and women it is unpardonable. 



144 COMPOSITION 



103. POSTAL CARDS AND LETTERS. 

Exercise. Write a postal card (see page 138) to Perry Mason & 
Co., 201 Columbus Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts, asking them to 
change the address of your " Youth's Companion " from Indiana, 
Indiana County, Pennsylvania, to your present address. Use the 
proper abbreviations. Which part of the perfect letter form may be 
omitted from a postal card ? Be sure to address the card correctly. 
When making such a request always give the former address as 
well as the new address. 

Write a letter to The Century Company, Union Square, New York 
City, inclosing a postal money order for seven dollars to pay for a 
year's subscription to " The Century Magazine " and for a year's sub- 
scription to " St. Nicholas," the former to be sent to your aunt, Mrs. 
Sarah K. Mendon, 117 Hawthorne Avenue, Northwest, Washington, 
D.C., and the latter to yourself at your home address. Before 
writing this letter read again the directions and the model letter 
in 47, pp. 68, 69. 

In writing this letter be careful to use proper abbreviations and 
to punctuate correctly. Address the envelope in harmony with the 
model given on p. 70. 



104. HOW I MADE AN ANCHOR. 

Read the following selection, noticing that the various 
events are recorded in the exact order of their occurrence. 
Such a piece of writing, being practically without sugges- 
tion, can not be notable as literature. Its interest is due 
to the simple, clear explanation of the things done. 

Last summer, during July and a part of August, while spending my 
vacation at Chautauqua, I kept my sailboat fastened to a keg buoy 
about sixty yards from the shore. The buoy was held in place by a 
heavy rope tied around two large flat stones, which I had wired to- 
gether and dropped into the lake opposite the' gymnasium. One 
morning, however, my boat was gone. Inquiry brought out the fact 
that a stray sailboat had been seen about five miles down the lake. 
It proved to be mine, still attached to the buoy. The buoy was 



NARRATIVE WITHOUT SUGGESTION 145 

clinging to the anchoring stones, which had been dragged all that 
distance by the force of the night's storm. 

This summer I determined not to be caught again. The first thing 
I did, therefore, was to buy an empty gasoline barrel, which I took to 
the beach near the gymnasium. There I drove off the two hoops 
near one end, and drove a third hoop part way off. I then had no 
trouble in taking out one head of the barrel without breaking any of 
its edges. I now encircled the barrel with part of a thirty-foot chain, 
making it fast with well-clinched staples. Next I gave the barrel, in- 
side and out, three coats of deck paint. Now I was ready for the 
completion of my work. 

I fastened the sterns of two rowboats close together. From one to 
the other I laid heavy planks, leaving the bows eight or ten feet 
apart. On the planks I set the barrel, and filled it closely with large 
and small stones. I then carefully replaced the head, and drove the 
hoops down as far as possible. To the end of the chain, I fastened a 
new keg buoy, to which I had given several coats of paint. 

The day was still and the lake was perfectly smooth. When no 
steamer was insight, for I did not want any waves rolling in while I 
was at the rest of my work, with the help of a friend I slowly paddled 
the boats out into the lake to the place chosen as the anchoring 
ground. Having reached it, I dropped the buoy over, and then gently 
pushed the barrel from the planks. It fell forward between the boats, 
and we gave a shout of applause. I now had an anchor that would 
not drag. 

But I made one mistake. I had not expected the barrel to sink 
into the mud so far as it did, and when the lake is high the chain is 
sometimes too short and my buoy is under water. The next time I 
shall be sure to have plenty of chain. — Adapted. 

What idea of the writer's character do you get from the 
selection ? How is each new paragraph indicated ? How 
do you indicate paragraphs in your own composition ? 
What is the purpose of the last paragraph ? 

Notice that each paragraph deals with a single promi- 
nent division of the explanation. The first deals with the 
facts that led to the making of the anchor. This is a 
beginning paragraph, or a paragraph of introduction. The 
second deals with the preparation of the barrel up to the 

STEPS ENG. — IO. 



146 COMPOSITION 

time it was ready to be placed on the planks ; the third 
with filling it and making it ready to drop into the water ; 
and the fourth with putting it into the lake. The fifth is 
a concluding paragraph, containing an implied warning to 
any one who may make a similar anchor, and bringing the 
composition to an easy close. 

Every composition should have a beginning, a middle, 
and a conclusion. The first and last may be only a sen- 
tence, but must be enough to open and close harmoni- 
ously. In the brief compositions written thus far a single 
sentence is sufficient ; in longer compositions a brief para- 
graph is usually given to each. 

A very necessary condition of a composition is that it 
shall be a unit, that is, that it shall deal with one subject 
and with nothing else. In the above selection, for example, 
a paragraph telling how much the writer enjoyed his vaca- 
tion, or one dealing with the scenery about Chautauqua 
Lake, would be out of place. 

In the same manner a paragraph must deal with one 
definite part of the general subject of the composition ; it, 
too, must be a unit, but a smaller one. For example, a 
sentence stating that a severe storm had occurred the night 
the sailboat dragged, its anchor, would be entirely out of 
place in the second, third, fourth, or fifth paragraph of 
the selection, but might have been properly introduced in 
the first. 

So, too, a sentence must be a unit. It must deal with 
a single idea definitely related to the paragraph subject. 
For example, the first two sentences of the second para- 
graph of the selection, if made into a single sentence, would 
not be a unit, as they deal with different thoughts, although 



WORDS TO WATCH 147 

both are definitely related to the paragraph subject. The 
second and third sentences are more closely related in 
thought, but even they would not form a harmonious unit. 
In all writing, then, endeavor to have a composition deal 
with one subject, a paragraph deal with one definite part 
of that subject, and a sentence deal with one thought 
about the part of the subject which is considered in the 
paragraph. 

Exercise. 

Tell of an experience of your own somewhat like the one told 
of above. For example, tell how you made a raft, how you took a 
photograph, how you trapped some animal, how you caught a butter- 
fly, how you caught a fish, how a game was won, how you made the 
garden, how you made a window garden, etc. Be careful to tell of 
the events in the order of their occurrence, and to make your explana- 
tion simple and clear. Have at least a beginning paragraph, two 
middle paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph. 

Have you any general suggestions to make to others trying to do 
something of the same kind, as the author has suggested some- 
thing in the last paragraph quoted ? 



105. WORDS TO WATCH. 

Lend is always a verb, and should never be used as a noun. 
Loan is usually a noun, and should rarely be used as a verb. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Insert the proper word : 

Will you me your knife? He received the watch as a 

, not as a gift. me a dollar ? 



Ex. II. In sentences, use each of these words correctly three 
times, 



148 COMPOSITION 

Ex. III. Turn to Composition 51, page 74, and note again the 
suggestions made there for giving a narrative life and reality. Then 
write an account of some recent trip you have taken. 



106. THE HEROISM OF JOHN BINNS. 

Thirteen years have passed since, but it is all to me as if it had 
happened yesterday — the clanging of the fire bells, the hoarse shouts 
of the firemen, the wild rush and terror of the streets ; then the great 
hush that fell upon the crowd ; the sea of upturned faces with the 
fire glow upon it; and up there, against the background of black 
smoke that poured from roof and attic, the boy clinging tothe narrow 
ledge, so far up that it seemed humanly impossible that help could 
ever come. 

But even then it was coming. 

Up from the street, while the crew of the truck company were 
laboring with the heavy extension ladder that at its longest stretch 
was many feet too short, crept four men upon long, slender poles 
with cross-bars, iron-hooked at the end. Standing in one window 
they reached up and thrust the hook through the next one above, 
then mounted a story higher. Again the crash of glass, and again 
the dizzy ascent. Straight up the wall they crept, looking like human 
flies on the ceiling, and clinging as close, never resting, reaching one 
recess only to set out for the next ; nearer and nearer in the race for 
life, until but a single span separated the foremost from the boy. 
And now the iron hook fell at his feet, and the fireman stood upon 
the step with the rescued lad in his arms, just as the pent-up flame 
burst lurid from the attic window, reaching with impotent fury for its 
prey. The next moment they were safe upon the great ladder wait- 
ing to receive them below. 

Then such a shout went up ! Men fell on each other's necks and 
cried and laughed at once. Strangers slapped one another on the 
back with glistening faces, shook hands, and behaved generally like 
men gone suddenly mad. Women wept in the street. The driver of 
a car stalled in the crowd, who had stood through it all speechless, 
clutching the reins, whipped his horses into a gallop and drove away, 
yelling like a Comanche, to relieve his feelings. The boy and his 
rescuer were carried across the street without any one knowing how. 



ACTS THAT SHOW FEELING 149 

» 
Policemen forgot their dignity and shouted with the rest. Fire, peril, 
terror, and loss were alike forgotten in the one touch of nature that 
makes the whole world kin. 

Fireman John Binns was made captain of his crew, and the Bennett 
medal was pinned on his coat on the next parade day. — Jacob A. 
Riis in "Heroes who Fight Fire' 1 '' in " The Century " for February, 
i8g8. Used by permission of The Century Co?npany. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Keeping in mind that a composition should consist of an 
introduction, a middle, and a conclusion, tell what the first paragraph is 
designed to d.o. What general picture does it present ? What details, 
or items, are mentioned to suggest that picture ? With eyes closed 
try to see the picture clearly. How many paragraphs make up the 
middle of the composition? What does the short one do? What 
does the third paragraph picture? The first time you read this para- 
graph what effect did it have on you? How did it make you feel? 
What details are given to produce this effect? What is pictured in 
the fourth paragraph? What different things are mentioned as being 
done by the men and women? Why are these things done? What 
feeling do you have as you read what the different persons did? 
What is done by the last paragraph? Does each paragraph deal 
with one main thought or with several? 

From the study of this selection draw a principle of composition 
relative to the power of details in suggesting pictures and in arousing 
feeling. 

Ex. II. Write a brief account of an experience you have had with 
a fire — when your home was on fire or was likely to be, when a 
neighbor's house burned, when a great fire occurred in the city, when 
you saw the engines and trucks going to a fire, when the fire-drill took 
place at your school. 

Be as simple and as clear as possible. Think before you write, and 
pick out the details that will be most effective in suggesting the 
pictures and the experiences. Do not forget the value of details of 
sound and of smell. 

Or write of an experience in connection with a flood. 

If your own experience seems barren, have your mother or grand- 
mother tell you of an experience she has had or knows of, and write 
a simple account of it. 



150 COMPOSITION 

107. THE COMMA {Continued). 

Last summer, during July and a part of August, while spending 
my vacation at Chautauqua, I kept 7ny sailboat fastened to a keg buoy 
about sixty yards from the shore. 

The leading thought in the sentence just quoted is, 
" Last summer I kept my sailboat fastened to a keg buoy 
about sixty yards from the shore." In the original sen- 
tence, then, there are two parts that in meaning are of 
secondary value : during July and a part of Atigust, and 
while spending my vacation at Chautauqua. Each of these 
is set off by commas from the part of the sentence con- 
taining the important idea ; for they convey ideas of less 
than prime importance. Such expressions are said to be 
parenthetical. 

Parenthetical expressions should be set off from the rest of the 
sentence by a comma or by commas. 

Notice the following sentences, each of which contains 
an Appositive, that is, a substantive expression meaning the 
same as the noun or pronoun that it follows : 

Appositive Parenthetical. 

i. Mr. Brown, the well-known carpenter, has recently visited Cuba. 

2. My dog, a fine collie, must be kept tied. 

3. Have you met my sister, the girl with the black hair? 

4. John Stuart Mill, the philosopher, was born in Scotland. 

Appositive Restrictive. 

5. My sister Elizabeth is to go abroad soon. 

6. The artist Millet was a French peasant. 

7. My dog Noble must be kept tied. 

8. The philosopher John Stuart Mill learned the Greek alphabet 
when he was three years old. 

Most appositives (probably all of over two words except 
an occasional proper name) are parenthetical, or non- 



PUNCTUATION 151 

restrictive (see 1 to 4, p. 150). They are not absolutely- 
necessary to the expression of the author's primary 
thought, but are inserted for emphasis or for explanation. 

A few appositives, however, including the great majority 
of those consisting of a single word, of a noun and its 
article, or of a proper name, are restrictive in their nature 
(see 5 to 8, p. 150). They are needed in order to express 
the author's primary meaning, and are never set off by 
commas, 

A parenthetical or Non-restrictive Expression, as has 
been explained, is one that can be omitted without chan- 
ging the author's primary meaning. It is one that adds a 
new idea or an emphasizing idea of secondary importance. 
(See left column below.) 

But a Restrictive Expression is one that is absolutely 
necessary in order to express the author's primary mean- 
ing. To omit a restrictive expression is to lose or change 
the meaning of the sentence. (See right column below.) 
This explains why a non-restrictive expression is set off by 
commas and why a restrictive expression must be written 
without commas. 

As the correct use of the comma depends largely upon 
a power to determine quickly and accurately whether an 
expression is restrictive, the following illustrative examples 
are inserted to show how clauses, the various kinds of 
phrases, and even single words may be either restrictive or 
non-restrictive : 

Non-Restrictive — Set Off. Restrictive — Not Set Off. 

i. His only son, John, was 1. His son John was present, 

present. (He has other sons.) 

2. A Greek philosopher, Di- 2. The Greek philosopher Di- 
ogenes, lived in a tub. ogenes lived in a tub. 



152 COMPOSITION 

Non-Restrictive — Set Off Restrictive — Not Set Off, 

3. Mr. Roosevelt, the presi- 3. Peter the Hermit was the 
dent, effected the settlement of preacher of the first crusade. 

the strike. 

4. The man, rowing rapidly, 4. The man rowing rapidly is 
soon came to the island. my father. 

5. The general, wise in his 5. A general wise in his own 
own conceit, was defeated. conceit deserves defeat. 

6. To speak candidly, I don't 6. He doesn't know how to 
understand it. speak candidly. 

7. It is mind, after all, that 7. He came after all the work 
does the work. was done. 

8. The diamond, which is pure 8. The diamond that I lost was 
carbon, is very expensive. very expensive. 

9. I then moved to Cincinnati, 9. I then moved to a town 
where I lived in comfort many where I had lived many years of 
years. my youth. 

10. Words, which are the signs 10. Words that stand for nouns 
of ideas, are divided into classes. are called pronouns. 

Considering together parenthetical and appositive ex- 
pressions, we may formulate the following rule : 

All parenthetical and all non-restrictive appositive expressions 
should be set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma or by 
commas. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Determine which of tJie following sentences con- 
tain parenthetical expressions, and insert the necessary 
commas : 

1. He who sings in his heart sings the sweetest. 

2. Sincerity the truest measure of real worth cannot be destroyed. 

3. A character honeycombed with deceit always fails at supreme 
moments. . * 

4. His integrity which is all his capital has never been assailed. 

5. Lincoln naturally a student absorbed knowledge widely. 

6. The way in which the rumor started can not be determined. 

7. Americans always progressive are ever seeking new worlds of 
invention to conquer. 



PUNCTUATION 153 

8. The story that the lecturer told was amusing. 

9. That story which no doubt was well known to Socrates is still 
making the world laugh. 

10. I will do it if it is possible. 

11. Wyclif who translated the Bible into English lived in the four- 
teenth century. 

12. Its population roughly speaking is three-fourths foreign born. 

13. Having read the book he returned it to me. 

14. The man at the corner wishes to speak to you. 

Ex. II. Which of the expressions in the left column on pp. 151, 
152, are parenthetical and which are appositive? 

In the discussion under 107 find all the parenthetical expressions ; 
all the restrictive expressions. 

108. THE COMMA (Continued). 

Occasionally an expression that is restrictive in nature 
is set off by a comma, following this rule : 

Insert a comma whenever, by appealing to the eye, it will make 
the meaning clearer. 

Restrictive — Set off for Clearness. Restrictive — Not Set off. 

i. By these, various opinions are 1. By these we acquired our liber- 
held, ties. 

2. To each, honor is given. 2. To each much honor is given. 

3. When it is red-hot, glass bends 3. When it is red-hot all glass 

easily. bends easily. 

4. To the intelligent and virtuous, 4. To the intelligent and virtuous 

old age presents a scene of our old age presents a scene 

tranquil enjoyment. of tranquil enjoyment. 

Note that the word following the comma- might seem in 
meaning to belong with the word just before the comma. 
It is this fact that renders the comma necessary. 

5. Whatever is, is right. 5. Whatever is good is beautiful. 

6. The machine that was successful in doing the work of harvesting 

at less than the cost of labor by hand, made possible the bound- 
less wheat fields of the Northwest. 



PUNCTUATION 155 

The sentences numbered 5 show that a subject ending 
in a verb, even though very short, is separated from its 
predicate by a comma ; while 6 shows that a long subject, 
even though not ending in a verb, is similarly separated. 
These commas, by appealing to the eye, add much to 
clearness. 

Exercise. 

Two of the following sentences need a comma to set off a 
restrictive expression. Determine which they are : 

When we arrived the minister had already begun his sermon. In 
the morning I will stop and see it. Even if this does technically apply 
to some it should not be applied. If I am able I shall go with you. 
When we entered the room was already comfortably warm. 



109. DAVID. 

After the pai7iting by Elizabeth Gardiner. 

And David said unto Saul, Thy servant kept his father's sheep, 
and there ca?ne a lion . . . and took a lamb out of the flock. And I 
went out after hi?n, and smote him, and delivered it out of his mouth. 

— /. Sa?nuel xvii : 34.-35 • 

Ex. 1. Where is this scene located ? What is there that perhaps 
may suggest the time of day or the condition of the weather? Who 
is the chief figure in the picture ? What has he just done ? What is 
he now doing? 

What is the position of his head? Of his eyes? Which arm is 
raised? Why? Why is he kneeling? Why has he knelt thus on the 
lion ? What thoughts are probably in his mind ? 

In which arm is David holding the lamb ? Is there any reason why 
he should hold it in his arm? What seems to be the feeling of the 
lamb ? Why your answer ? 

Has David probably slain this lion with his hands alone? What 
did a shepherd lad usually carry? Why did he carry it? In a land 



156 COMPOSITION 

infested with wild beasts would it be light or heavy? Why has the 
artist not shown it in the picture? 
What will David do now? 

Ex. II. Write an imaginary account of the contest between David 
and the lion. 

Giving the lamb power to talk, write such an account of its experi- 
ence with the lion as it might give to David. 

From memory write an account of David's contest with Goliath. 
Then compare what you have written with the story given in 
I. Samuel, xvii : 38-54, and revise or rewrite. 

Write a description of this picture. 



110. THE COMMA {Continued). 
Notice the use of commas in the following sentences : 

1. Many of the noblest works of literature are intensely local in 
color, atmosphere, material, and allusion. 

2. No form of vice — not worldliness, not greed of gold, not 
drunkenness itself — does more to un-Christianize society than evil 
temper. 

3. A busy lawyer, editor, minister, physician, or teacher has need, 
of greater physical endurance than a farmer, trader, manufacturer, 
or mechanic. 

4. The city can use bright, thinking, progressive boys, strong in 
health, vigorous in mind, clear in thought, energetic in action, honest 
in purpose. 

5. The old horse neighed, snorted, kicked, rolled, and finally 
darted across the prairie. 

6. It is necessary to have rapid plates, bright sunshine, and short 
exposure. 

7. He said that he had to go to the city, stop at the bank, buy his 
tickets, and be back by three o'clock. 



Exercise. 

Which of these sentences contain several nouns used in the same 
way, that is, in a series? Several adjectives used in a series? How 



PUNCTUATION 157 

are these words separated from one another ? Which contain several 
modified nouns used in a series? Several verbs? Several infinitive 
phrases? How are the individual members of these various series 
separated from one another? 

The rule governing the use of commas in a series may 
be thus stated : 

Place a comma after each except the last of a series of words 
or expressions in the same construction. 

Note. When a series of adjectives precedes a noun they are not 
separated by commas unless they are in the same construction ; that 
is, unless each adjective modifies the noun alone. In the following 
sentences each adjective modifies the substantive idea that follows; 
that is, the idea made up by combining the following adjective or 
adjectives and the noun ; and so no commas are necessary: 

She carried a new white willow basket. 

He lives in the old red brick house. 

All children love Andersen's delightful fairy tales. 

See Gr. 185, p. 272 ; p. 32, footnote. 

Exercises. 
Ex. I. Insert the necessary commas : 

1. The latest novel the monthly magazine and the daily news- 
paper are widely read. 

2. The great civilizers are the pen the pencil and the typewriter. 

3. Every boy should aim at nobility honesty and manliness. 

4. Ripe in wisdom was he but patient simple and childlike. 

5. The farmer ploughs sows and cultivates that he may reap. 

6. All was harmony calm quiet luxuriant budding cheerful. 

7. Slowly sadly wearily he walked his way alone. 

8. Her air her manner and her life were everywhere admired. 

9. At the year's final sunset may we each realize that in body we 
are stronger,in mind we are nobler, and in heart we are sweeter be- 
cause of a twelve-month of self-forgetful living. 

Ex. II. Examine closely the selection " How I Made an Anchor" 
(pp. 144, 145), and give the rule governing each comma used. 



158 COMPOSITION 

111. THE SEMICOLON. 

The purpose and use of the semicolon are suggested by 
the following rules : 

Use the semicolon between two statements united by a connect- 
ive, if a comma is found in either or both of the statements and if 
a comma at the point of connection might endanger clearness ; as, 

Our companion, who could walk no farther, took a car for the city ; 
but we walked on, as we wished the charming view, and we were 
more than repaid for our efforts. 

Use a semicolon between two statements not united by a connect- 
ive when they seem too closely allied in meaning to permit the use 
of the period ; as 

" It's sweet-flag stalk ; would you like some ?" 

Note i. Notice that the semicolon in each of the illustrations 
may be dropped and a period inserted in its place, without in the 
least changing the meaning. 

Note 2. The semicolon is sometimes used to separate phrases 
or clauses depending upon a common declaration. It is also occasion- 
ally used when the statements are long, and when the second state- 
ment gives a result of the first, an explanation of it, or a reason for it ; 
as, // was dark and the path was stony ; so we took a lantern with us. 

It is also regularly used before as introducing an example, which 
use is shown just above. 

Boys mid girls should as a rule use a period when they 
are tempted to use a semicolon. 



Exercise. 

Determine the rule governing each semicolon used in 92, 93, 104, 
and .106 (pp. 131, 132, 144, 145, 148, 149). How many do you find? 
Do authors make frequent use of the semicolon ? 



PUNCTUATION 159 



112. THE COLON. 

The exercise in Composition 56, p. 78, begins thus : 

Insert the proper word : 

In like manner many of the lessons containing selections 
begin with a sentence that closes with a colon (:), just as 
the present lesson itself begins. These various sentences 
show the real nature of the colon. It is a sign of expecta- 
tion. 

It says to the reader, "Something else is coming; ex- 
pect it." Look at the sentence beginning 93, 95, 96, etc., 
and you will see that such is the nature of this mark of 
punctuation. 

We have learned before that the colon is used after the 
salutation in letters. Here, as in the instances already 
cited, it says to the reader, " Something else is coming ; 
expect it." An orator begins his address by saying 
" Ladies and Gentlemen : " and we know from his tones 
that we are to expect something, and the reporter in- 
dicates that expectation by putting a colon after the 
word Gentlemen. We may then formulate this rule of 
punctuation : 

Use the colon to indicate expectation, — especially before a long 
quotation, before a formal enumeration, and after the salutation at 
the beginning of letters. 



113. WORDS TO WATCH. 

In indicates place where. 

Into indicates place to which, and usually follows verbs of motion. 



160 COMPOSITION 

Exercise. 

Insert the proper proposition : 

Put the ashes the can ; they are now the ash- 
pit. We sat down the library, but soon went 

the parlor. Throw the paper the basket. He asked him 

to go the house. I wish that, when you are the 

city, you would go . Davis's and get me a deed -box 

which to keep my manuscripts. 

114. A PLEASANT ROOM. 

Read carefully the following selection, watching for 
hints, or suggestions, of character and for all other sugges- 
tions : 

It was a comfortable old room, although the carpet was faded and 
the furniture was plain ; for a good picture or two hung on the wall, 
books filled the recesses, chrysanthemums and Christmas roses 
bloomed in the windows, and a pleasant atmosphere of home-peace 
pervaded it. — Louisa M. Alcott in "Little Women." 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. What does this description of the room tell about the 
character of the inmates? Just what things suggest character ? Shut 
your eyes and try to see the room. Are you able to see it ? Notice 
that you are enabled to see it because of the few suggestive details 
that are given. Just what details are mentioned ? What things were 
in the room that are not mentioned ? When describing a room will 
you mention a large number of things that it contains? If a few 
details will do, what must the few be, — those that are common to 
every room, or those that give the character, so to speak, of the spe- 
cial room? Give a rule governing each punctuation mark in this 
selection. 

Ex. II. Write a description of a room that you have seen. 
Make use of the four or five details that individualize the room, and 
if possible suggest by these details the character of the inmates. 
Remember that a person tries to have in his room the things he 
cares for. 



DESCRIPTION l6l 



115. DESCRIPTION. 

The last lesson illustrates the whole theory of successful 
literary description. In his descriptions an author aims to 
be suggestive, and in order to be suggestive he depends 
primarily on picturing details, or hints, just as he depends 
upon character details, or hints, in making us know his 
people. When he wishes to make us know his hero he 
selects two or three typical acts out of the hundreds the 
hero performs and lets us see him do these. Such typical 
acts are suggestive details out of the hero's life. So when 
he wishes to make us see a room, a person, a landscape, or 
a city street, he chooses a few suggestive details and pre- 
sents them to us in a manner as vivid as possible. 

The details, or hints, of character being given, the im- 
agination tells much of the character of the man ; the few 
suggestive details of the picture being given, the imagina- 
tion puts in for us the other details, and we see the room, 
the person, the landscape, the city street, — whatever it 
may be that the author wishes us to see. 

Read a further illustration : 

Laurie led the way from room to room, letting Jo stop to examine 
whatever struck her fancy ; and so at last they came to the library, 
where she clapped her hands. ... It was lined with books, and 
there were pictures, and statues, and . . . little cabinets full of coins 
and curiosities, and sleepy-hollow chairs, and queer tables, and 
bronzes ; and, best of all. a great open fireplace with quaint tiles all 
around it. — Louisa M. Alcott in " Little Women." 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Shut your eyes and see the room. How does it differ from 
the room you saw in 114 ? What are the suggestive details, or hints, 

STEPS ENG.— II. 




l62 



NARRATIVES 163 

that are given ? How many are given? Which ones are most effect- 
ive in making you see ? An old gentleman lives in this room ; what 
idea do you form of his character? What gives it to you? Are 
these, then, character-revealing details, as well as picturing details? 



Ex. II. By means of picturing details that are also character- 
revealing details, describe the room of one of your companions. 

Use your imagination, if necessary, to describe the room of a girl 
that is untidy and unrefined, although she is rich. 

Describe the room of a girl that is ladylike, cultured, and neat, 
although very poor. 

Describe the room of a boy that loves hunting, photography, and 
all manner of games. 

In all this work draw as much as possible from rooms that you 
have actually seen. 



116. THE RETURN OF THE " MAYFLOWER." 

After the Painting by G. H. Boughton. ■ 

Ex. I. Does the word return in the name of the picture mean that 
the ship is going to England or is coming to the Massachusetts coast? 

Which are the important figures in the picture? So far as beauty 
and attractiveness are concerned, what is the general nature of the 
shore where they are standing? What would have been the effect if 
the artist had introduced about them a very beautiful landscape? 
Granting that the real shore is beautiful, why would it not be wise to 
paint it so in this picture ? 

Why are the less important figures introduced? Why has the 
woman her handkerchief in her hand ? What would have been the 
effect if the artist had omitted the ship that is suggested at the ex- 
treme right? 

What is the feeling of the man and of the woman? Where is the 
right hand of the woman ? Why? Why is the woman put in a posi- 
tion that requires her to turn her head in order to look after the disap- 
pearing ship ? 

Why is the man holding his hat in his hand ? Why is he heedless 
of the fact that his cloak has fallen from one shoulder? Do the faces 
have similar or decidedly different expressions? On which face is 
the expression more marked ? 



164 COMPOSITION 

Is the sun shining bright ? Why has the artist made it such a day ? 
As you look at the picture do you feel that the day is warm or chilly ? 
Why has the artist made you feel thus ? 

Assume the position of each of these figures in every detail. What 
effect does the position have on your feelings? 

Tell the history lying back of this picture. 

Ex. II. Write a story suggested by this picture, — perhaps of a 
boy or girl left here by the return of the " Mayflower," describing his 
various adventures. Make it entirely imaginary. Or tell any story 
you please — imaginary, or founded on history. 

Tell and then write the story of a trip you have made to the ocean 
or to a lake. 

Tell and then write the story of wading in a brook or creek during 
your childhood. 

Write of a time you were left alone by the rest of the family. 

117. WORDS TO WATCH. 

Either means one of the two. 
Both means the one and the other. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Insert the proper word : 

I will land you on side of the river. Trees covered 

banks of the stream. Did you give a cart to of 



the boys or did you give one to of them. 

Ex. II. Determine the meaning of each of the following : 
I will give it to both of you. Either of you may have it. He left 

his boat for both of them. He said that either of them might use the 

boat. 

118. ANSWERING ADVERTISEMENTS. 

Wanted. — Boy to answer telephone and door-bell at physician's office, and to 
send out bills. Address in own writing, giving age and naming references. 
X 29, Press Office. 

Wanted. — Girl to fold and address circulars. Address in own handwriting 
giving age and time spent in school. References required. 34, Telegraph Office. 



ADVERTISEMENTS 165 

Wanted. — Boys and girls to address envelopes at home. For particulars 
write F. T. Smith, Dep't 23, 118 Strand, London, England. 

For Sale. — Beautiful summer home on Lake George. 8 rooms ; wide 
porches ; plenty of shade ; 100 feet from lake. For particulars address Owner, 
116 South Orange Ave., Boston, Mass. 

For Rent. — Farm of 160 acres, 7 miles from city. Address Z. A. Young, 
R. F. D. 33, Crafton, Pa. 

For Rent. — Brick house, 9 rooms, both gases, all conveniences. $45.00. 
Particulars from Owner, Room 1728, Frick Building. 

Exercise. 

Write letters of inquiry or application in reply to four of the above 
advertisements. Use the full business form of letter (p. 76). Be 
sure to give all particulars required and to ask for each separate item 
of information that you wish. Address envelopes for the letters. 

119. WORDS TO WATCH. 

Affect means to act upon, to influence. 
Effect means to bring about, to accomplish. 

Exercise. 

Insert the proper word : 

The change was after a long struggle. Did the failure 

, your business ? Will you be able to your pur- 
pose? How little did his death his family ! He undertook 

to a consolidation of all the glass manufactories. 



120. THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 

Examine the following expressions : 

" Jane ! Jane ! where are you ? " 

" Such fun ! Only see ! A note of invitation from Mrs. Gardiner 
for to-morrow night ! " 

In these expressions the exclamation point (!) is used 
five times. The name Jane used in the first expression is 



166 COMPOSITION 

a word of address. You have already learned that such 
words and expressions are usually set off from the rest 
of the sentence by commas. But here the exclamation 
point is used. This shows that the exclamation point is 
occasionally used as the equivalent in some respects of the 
comma. 

In the next three uses it could not be replaced by any 
other mark of punctuation, for the sentence clearly shows 
strong emotion. 

We may then formulate this rule of punctuation : 

Use the exclamation point after words, phrases, sentences, or 
other expressions that show strong emotion. 

Boys and girls, however, should seldom use the exclama- 
tion point. 

Exercise. 

Find other exclamation points in the selections given in this book 
or in several selections in your reader, and determine whether each 
follows an expression of strong emotion. 



121. THE OTHER FELLOW. 

Read the following brief selection and determine what 
is meant by "The Other Fellow." 

Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes says that in every one of us there are 
two persons. First, there is yourself, and there is the Other Fellow ! 
Now one of these is all the time doing things, and the other sits 
inside and tells what he thinks about the performance. Thus, I do 
so and so, act so and so, seem to the world so and so ; but the Other 
Fellow sits in judgment on me all the time. 

I may tell a lie, and do it so cleverly that the people may think I 
have done or said a great or good thing ; and they may shout my 
praises far and wide. But the Other Fellow sits inside and says, 
" You lie ! you lie ! you're a sneak, and you know it ! ! " . . . 



PUNCTUATION 167 

Or, again, I may do a really noble deed, but perhaps be misunder- 
stood by the public, who may persecute me and say all manner of 
evil against me falsely ; but the Other Fellow will sit inside and say, 
" Never mind, old boy ! It's all right ! Stand by ! " 

— William Haw ley Smith in " The Evolution of 'Dodd.' 1 " 1 

Exercise. 

Write an account of something you have done for which you were 
blamed, but at which the Other Fellow said, " It's all right ! " 

Write an account of something you have done for which you were 
praised, but at which the Other Fellow said, " You're a sneak ! " 

You will not be asked to read these themes in class. 

Write a paragraph describing an act that made you know a boy or 
girl was angry or was delighted. 

Write a postal card to J. A. Grim, 1324 Park Building, Cleveland, 
O., asking him to call at your office and repair your typewriter. Do 
not fail to tell him where your office is. 

In a letter to a friend describe two acts of a boy or girl that made 
you impatient. 

In a letter describe a picture that you have seen so that a friend 
can buy you a copy of it. You do not know its name. 

In an informal note invite a friend to go boating, driving, or 
walking with you. 

In a letter tell a friend of a new game you have learned to play. 
Explain so fully that he will be able to play it. 

1 Used by permission of Rand, McNally & Company. 



PART III. 

I. GRAMMAR. 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH. THEIR CLASSIFICA- 
TION, INFLECTIONS, AND RELATIONS. 



122. NOUNS: THEIR CLASSIFICATION. 

Point out the nouns in the following : 

When Governor Andros asked the people of Hartford, Connecti- 
cut, to surrender their charter, a patriot, Captain Wadsworth, seized 
the document and cleverly hid it in a hollow tree. This tree was 
afterwards known as the Charter Oak, and the spot where it once 
stood is now marked by a monument. 

Note that some of the nouns in the above differ from 
the others by beginning with capitals. This is because 
they are special names given to individual persons, places, 
or things to distinguish them from others of the same 
kind. Is the name Charter Oak given to all oak trees ? 
Is the name tree given to all oak trees ? Is the name 
Hartford common to all cities ? Is the name city common 
to all cities ? The names Charter Oak and Hartford are 
given to a particular tree and city to distinguish them 
from all other trees and cities ; or we may say that the 
names Charter Oak and Hartford are special names given 
to individual objects, while the names tree and city are 
general names given to any or all objects of their class 
or kind. 

168 



THE NOUN 



169 



A special name given to an object to distinguish that 
object from all others of its kind, is called a Proper Noun. 

Definition. A Proper Noun is a special name belonging to an 
individual person, people, place, or thing. 

All other nouns are Common Nouns. 

Definition. A Common Noun is a general name belonging to 
each object of its class. 



123. CAPITAL LETTERS. 

The classification of nouns into common and proper is 
important because it involves the correct use of capital 
letters, as is shown in the following parallel sentences : 

Common. 
Common nouns begin with 
small letters; except that per- 
sonal names, even when used to 
denote a class, retain their capital 
letters (see 4 and 6 below). 1 

1. (a) I am the lord of this 
mansion, (b) His god is money. 
(c) He is king 2 of Spain. 

2. The governor 2 of Ohio. 

3. Must I stay, father ? 

4. A Daniel has come to judg- 
ment. 

5. We called on Theodore 
Roosevelt, the president. 



Proper. 
All proper names and the chief 
words of such names, whether of 
animate or inanimate existence, 
begin with capital letters ; as, too, 
do all words that name the Deity. 

I. The Deity. 

i. "The Lord is a great God 
and a great King above all gods." 

2. The Governor of all. 

3. Forgive them, Father. 

II. Persons. 

4. Yes, Daniel, come hither. 

5. We called on President 
Roosevelt. 



1 Another exception is that words are sometimes capitalized to give them prom- 
inence, especially in treatises ; but this use of capitals should not be encouraged in 
literature. 

2 Words thus used are sometimes begun with capitals. 



170 



GRAMMAR 



6. I have heard that Aunt 
Mary admires Cicero. 

III. Countries, Places, etc. 

7. That man belongs to the 
East. 

8. She located the Gulf of 
Mexico, the District of Columbia, 
and the Tropic of Cancer. 

1 IV. Festivals. 

9. Will you go on New Year's 
Day, Good Friday, Easter, Thanks- 
giving Day, or Memorial Day ? 

V. Months and Days of the Week. 

10. He was present every Sat- 
urday and Sunday during Janu- 
ary, February, and November. 

VI. Prominent Objects and Events. 

11. We visited the Capitol in 
Washington during the Civil War, 
which occurred long after the 
Reformation. 

VII. Religious Denominations and 
Political Parties. 

12'. In England, the Presbyte- 
rians, Methodists, Baptists, and 
Unitarians are called Dissenters. 

13. The Democrats twice 
elected Cleveland president. 



VIII. Names of Books, Chapters, 
Companies, etc. 

14. Henry Van Dyke wrote 
"The Blue Flower." 

15. The Crucible Steel Com- 
pany makes fine grades of steel. 



6. My aunt admires the Cic- 
eros and the Shakespeares of 
every land. 

7. London is situated east of 
Windsor. 

8. He defined gulf, district, 
tropic, cancer, and bounded the 
state of Pennsylvania. 



9. Mary began the work of 
the new year by misspelling 
thanksgiving and memorial. 



10. In spring and summer we 
live in the North ; in fall and 
winter we live in the South. 



11. Any reformation that will 
prevent civil war will be welcomed 
by the people of Washington, the 
capital of the United States. 



12. The dissenters in our church 
are not numerous. 

13. The democrats of Russia 
have little influence in political 
affairs. 



14. He plucked a blue flower. 

15. This company makes cru- 
cible steel. 



THE NOUN 171 



Exercise. 



Use in a sentence each of the following words (1) so that 
it shall begin with a capital letter {do not use the word to 
begin the sentence) ; (2) so that it shall begin with a small 
letter: 

Governor, captain, uncle, king, west, bay, revolution, college, park, 
republican. 



124. GENDER. 

Note the indicated nouns in the following sentences : 

1. Mr. Smith said that the lion is the king #/ beasts. 

2. Mrs. Smith said that the lioness is the queen of the forest. 

Which of these nouns denote males? Which denote females? 
Which denotes neither a male nor a female ? Which denotes either a 
male or a female ? 

The physical difference between the individuals them- 
selves is called Sex. The power in their names to make 
known this difference is called Gender. 

Definition. Gender is the power of a noun or pronoun to 
denote the sex of the person or thing represented. 

Nouns denoting males are of the Masculine Gender. 

Nouns denoting females are of the Feminine Gender. 

Nouns denoting neither males nor females are genderless or 
Neuter Nouns, and are said to be of the Neuter Gender. Neuter means 
neither. 

Nouns that may denote either a male or a female are masculine or 
feminine according to the sex of the particular individual mentioned. 
When the sex of the individual is unknown or can not be inferred 
from the context, the noun is said to be in the Indeterminate or Com- 
mon Gender. 



172 



GRAMMAR 



By referring to the two illustrative sentences, it will be 
seen that the gender of nouns is shown in three ways : 



By using different prefixes ; as, 
Other examples are : 

By using different suffixes ; as, 
Other examples are : 



3. By using different words; as, 
Other examples are : 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Mr. Smith 


Mrs. Smith 


manservant 


maidservant 


he-goat 


she-goat 


lion 


lioness 


duke 


duchess 


testator 


testatrix 


king 


queen 


monk 


nun 



father 



mother 



Exercise. 

Arrange the following nouns tinder three different heads 
as given above : 

Mr. Jones, Miss Jones; husband, wife; administrator, administra- 
trix ; emperor, empress ; lord, lady ; tiger, tigress ; tutor, governess ; 
signor, signora ; czar, czarina ; don, donna or dona ; hero, heroine ; 
heir, heiress ; beau, belle ; nephew, niece; rooster, hen ; wizard, witch ; 
stag, hind. 



125. THE VALUE OF GENDER. 

A knowledge of the gender of nouns is important (1) 
as a matter of orthography ; (2) as it involves the cor- 
rect use of the pronouns he, she, and it. Pronouns should 
be used according to the principles stated below : 

Masculine. 

1. Nouns that denote males are referred to by the 
pronoun he. 

2. Names of animals are often considered as masculine 



THE NOUN 173 

without regard to the sex, the writer employing he, if he 
fancies the animal to possess masculine characteristics ; as, 
The grizzly bear is the most savage of his race. 

3. Nouns that name something remarkable for strength, 
power, size, and sublimity, when personified, are considered 
as masculine, and are referred to by he ; as, Death with his 
thousand doors. 

4. Singular nouns used so as to stand for persons of 
both sexes are considered as of the masculine gender, and 
are referred to by he ; as, Every person has his faults. 

Feminine. 

1. Nouns that denote females are referred, to by the 
pronoun she. 

2. Names of animals are often considered as feminine 
without regard to the sex, the writer employing she if he 
fancies the animal to possess feminine characteristics ; as, 
The cat steals upon her prey. 

3. Names of objects remarkable for gentleness, beauty, 
grace, and peace, when personified, are considered as fem- 
inine, and are referred to by the pronoun she ; as, The 
moon unveiled her peerless light. 

Neuter. 

1. Nouns that denote objects without sex are referred 
to by the pronoun it. 

2. Names of animals or objects whose sex is disregarded 
are referred to by the pronoun it ; as, (1) The grizzly 
bear is the most savage of\\s race. (2) The cat steals upon 
its prey. 

3. Collective nouns of unity (Gr. 132, p. 1 86) are neuter; 
as, The class is large; it must be divided. 



174 GRAMMAR 

Common. 

i. Singular nouns that may be applied to persons or 
objects of either sex, such as parent, pupil, cousin, friend, 
etc., may be said to be of the common gender ; but, since 
there is no pronoun of the common gender, jd person, sin- 
gular, to represent such nouns, the term common gender is 
practically valueless. Hence, — 

2. A singular noun whose gender may be indeterminate 
is of the masculine gender when known to denote a male ; 
as, My friend (John) brought his book with him. 

3. A singular noun whose gender may be indeterminate 
is of the feminine gender when known to denote a female ; 
as, My friend (Mary) brought her bdoks with her. 

4. A singular noun whose gender may be indeterminate 
is of the masculine gender when so used that the con- 
text does not denote the sex of the object ; as, My friend 
brought his books with him. (See "Masculine," 4th para^ 
graph.) 

Exercise. 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with appropri- 
ate pronouns, and tell which of the above principles applies 
to each: 



1. The father bird sings to mate. 

2. A wild beast from den sprang forth. 

3. A person's actions often indicate thoughts. 

4. The fawn turned head quickly. 

5. Every one gave own opinion. 

6. The camel is distinguished for great endurance. 

7. Everybody should make the most of opportunities. 

8. The child was delighted with . new toy. 

9. Hope extends wings of light. 



THE NOUN ; 175 

10. Virtue can see by own radiant light. 

11. Nobody shirked the task given to 

12. The panther crouches to watch prey. 

13. The nightingale poured forth tuneful melody. 

14. War leaves victims on the field, and homes deso- 
lated by mourn over cruelty. 

15. The faithful dog mourned master. 

16. The woman loved glossy black horse. 

17. The owl is nocturnal in habits. 

18. The fox is noted for cunning. 

19. Each member of the class brought books with 



20. Summer clothes self in green, and decks self 

with flowers. 

21. Belgium's capital had gathered then beauty and 

, chivalry. 

22. Spring hangs infant blossoms on the trees. 

23. The administratrix filed account with the court. 

24. How does the hen protect brood from the cold? 



126. PERSON. 

We girls are going to the library. 
Will you go with us, Martha ? 
Yes, thank you, if Helen will go. 

Which words in the above sentences are used to denote the persons 
speaking? W T hich denote the person spoken to? Which denote a 
person or a thing spoken of? What part of speech is each of these 
words ? 

This distinction of the noun or the pronoun as denoting 
the speaker, the one spoken to, or the person or thing 
spoken of, is called Person. 

Definition. Person is the power of a pronoun by its form, and 
of a noun or pronoun by its context, to distinguish the speaker, the 
one spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of. 



176 GRAMMAR 

Grammarians have not devised descriptive names for the 
different distinctions of person, as they have for those of 
gender. They have simply numbered them First Person, 
Second Person, and Third Person. 

First Person. A noun is said to be in the first person 
when it is the name of the person or persons speaking, and 
is in apposition with a pronoun of the first person ; as, /, 
John, will go. (Apropemoun in the first person is always 
set off by the comma.) We girls will not go. (A com- 
mon noun, first person, is not set off unless limited ; as, 
We, the girls of No. 10, will not go.) (Com p. 107.) 

Second Person. A noun is said to be in the second 
person when it is used in a term of address or in apposi- 
tion with a pronoun of the second person; as, (1) When 
are you going, my friends ? (2) William, come here. (3) 
Yes, sir, I shall. (4) Will you men please leave the room? 

Third Person. All other nouns are said to be in the 
third person. A noun is in the third person if used as a 
subject, attribute complement, or object, although it is used 
by the speaker about himself or in addressing another ; as, 
(1) The subscriber gives notice. (2) Your Excellency is 
very gracious. (3) Is this my boy? (4) I am a student. 
(5) I am grateful to your Excellency. (6) Please notify 
the undersigned. 

Remark. The distinction of person has importance only in con- 
nection with pronouns and verbs. Nouns do not change in form to 
denote person, but the context makes it known, and for convenience 
they are said to have person. 



127. REVIEW. 

Test Questions, i. Which is the largest class of nouns? Why? 
2. In what two ways may proper nouns be distinguished? 3. Of 



THE NOUN 177 

what importance is the classification of nouns as common and proper ? 

4. What is the difference in the meaning of the terms sex and gender? 

5. What does the word neuter mean ? 6. How is the word indetermi- 
nate applied to gender? 7. In what three ways is the gender of 
nouns and pronouns denoted? 8. Why is it important to know the 
gender of nouns and pronouns? 9. What is person? 10. Of what 
importance is a knowledge of person? 11. How is the person of 
nouns and of pronouns made known ? 



128. INFLECTION. 

Note the difference in form between each indicated 
word in the first column and the corresponding word in 
the second column, below. 

(1) Point out in each word what letters are added or 
substituted. 

(2) Tell what change in the use or meaning of each word 
is denoted by the change or variation in its form. 



I. 

2. 

3« 

4- 


One boy. 
The boys run. 
John has a ball. 
He hit the ball. 


Two boys. 
The boy runs. 
John's ball. 
The ball hit him. 


5- 


The lion. 


The lioness. 


6. 

7- 


The high building. 
The birds sing. 


The highest buildi7ig. 
The birds sang. 



These variations in form do not change the general meaning of the 
word. The only difference in the meaning of boy and boys is in the 
number of objects designated, — boy denotes one, boys more than one. 

In the second example s is added to the verb rtm to denote its use 
or agreement with the subject boy, not boys. 

When the form of a word is varied to denote some 
change in the use or meaning, the word is said to be 
inflected. Inflect means to turn from a direct course, to 
vary. 

STEPS ENG. 12. 



178 GRAMMAR 

Definition, inflection is a variation in the form of a word to 
denote a change in its use or meaning. 

The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called Declension 
(with the exception of the few inflections of nouns that are 
made to show gender). The inflection of verbs is called 
Conjugation. The inflection of adjectives and adverbs is 
called Comparison. 

Prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, and expletives are not 
inflected. 



129. NUMBER. 

The most common inflection of the noun is that by 
which we denote Number. 

With a few exceptions nouns have two number forms \ 
the Singular and the Plural. 

Definitions. The Singular Number denotes only one. 
The Plural Number denotes more than one. 

Formation of Plural Number. 

General Rule. Nearly all nouns are made plural by adding s 
or es to the singular form. 

We add es when the noun ends in s, x, 2, sh, or ch soft (as in 
crutch). This is because these letters sound so much like s that 
when one of them ends a word we can not pronounce the plural with- 
out giving to the word an additional syllable ; as, brush, brushes ; 
box, boxes ; witch, witches. 

Exercise. 

Pronounce in the plural number the following nouns ; 
then write their plural forms, observing that they end with 
es whenever an additional syllable is required: 



THE NOUN 



179 



Stamp, chair, tray, peach, tax, wharf, fife, flame, guess, breeze, 
fez, key, watch, buoy, chief, Indian, gulf, arch, patriarch, ark, topaz, 
wish, bridge, oak, cuckoo, cameo, cuff, casino, roof, couch, essay, 
blush, path, hoof, turf. 

Exceptions to Rule for Forming the Plural of Nouns. 
The following exceptions to the general rule are impor- 
tant : 

I. Eleven nouns form their plurals without s or es. 

These eleven nouns are the only surviving examples of old Eng- 
lish inflections forming the plural by the use of en {ox, oxen) or by a 
vowel change (foot, feet). Their plurals are: 

Oxen, children, brethren (of a society), kine (pi. of cow, used in 
poetry), feet, teeth, geese, lice, mice, men, women. 
Write their singular forms. 

II. Eleven nouns ending in f and three in fe change/" 
or fe into ves ; as, beei, beeves. 

Write the plural of each of the following: 

Beef, elf, leaf, self, shelf, wolf, calf, half, loaf, sheaf, thief, knife, 
wife, life. 

The plurals of all other nouns ending in f or fe are 
formed regularly by the addition of s. 

III. All common nouns ending in y preceded by a con- 
sonant, change y into i and add es ; as, daisy, daisies. 
This exception includes nouns ending in quy, in which u 
is strictly a consonant : as, colloquy, colloquies. 

All other nouns ending in y are regular, adding only s. 

To prevent confusion, the names of persons usually add only s in 
the plural ; as, the two Carys, the Moodys. 

Write the plurals of the following nouns : 

Ally, alley, glory, journey, city, Henry, liberty, money, joy, 
soliloquy. 



i8o 



GRAMMAR 



IV. Many nouns taken without change from other 
languages retain their native plurals. In words from 
Latin and Greek the ending is becomes es in the plural ; 
the ending urn or on becomes a; ex or ix becomes ices; 
us becomes i ; as, 



analysis, analyses 
basis, bases 
crisis, crises 
oasis, oases 
aquarium, aquaria 



phenomenon, phenomena 
appendix, appendices 
vertex, vertices 
alumnus, alumni 
radius, radii 



After foreign nouns come to be looked upon as 
thoroughly English, they often form their plurals in the 
English way ; as, 



beau, beaux or beaus 
seraph, seraphim or seraphs 
cherub, cherubim or cherubs 



bandit, banditti or bandits . 
stamen, stamina or stamens 
radius, radii or radiuses 



When the English form is authorized it is preferable. 

V. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form the 
plural regularly by adding an s ; as, cameos , embryo^ trios. 

When the final o is preceded by a consonant, some 
nouns add es and others s only. These must be learned 
by observation. 

The first eighteen of the following nouns add es to form the plural, 
and the rest add s only. Write their plurals and note that many of 
those adding s only are terms used in music: 



I. 


broncho 


9- 


hero 


17. 


veto 


23- 


domino 


2. 


buffalo 


IO. 


motto 


18. 


volcano 


24. 


halo 


3- 


calico 


ii. 


mulatto 






25- 


lasso 


4- 


cargo 


12. 


negro 






26. 


memento 


5- 


echo 


13- 


potato 


19. 


alto 


27. 


piano 


6. 


embargo 


14. 


tomato 


20. 


banjo 


28. 


solo 


7- 


flamingo 


15- 


tornado 


21. 


canto 


29. 


soprano 


8. 


grotto 


l6. 


torpedo 


22. 


contralto 


3°- 


zero 



THE NOUN 



181 



Test Questions. 

i. What is number in grammar? 2. Give the general rule for 
forming the plural of nouns. 3. How many nouns are included in 
the first exception to the general rule ? 4. How do these form the 
plural ? 5. What nouns does the second exception include ? 6. Why 
do we add es to berry and only s to turkey in forming the plural? 
7. Tell clearly why we add es to hero and s only to Nero to form the 
plural. 8. How do nouns from a foreign language usually form 



their plurals ? 9. When two plurals are given which is preferable? 
10. In forming the plural of nouns ending in o how do we determine 
whether to add s or es f 



Exercise. 

Write the plurals of the following nouns and point out 
those that form their plurals regularly. If irregularly, 
point out in what way they are exceptions to the general 
rule : 



I. 


arm 


11. 


cargo 


2. 


arch 


12. 


canto 


3- 


axis 


13- 


echo 


4- 


attorney 


14. 


fairy 


5. 


beau 


i5- 


folio 


6. 


beef 


16. 


fife 


7- 


belief 


17- 


knife 


8. 


chief 


18. 


hero 


9- 


charity 


19. 


halo 


10. 


chimney 


20. 


half 



21. lily 

22. leaf 

23. joy 

24. motto 

25. memento 

26. majority 

27. Mary 

28. negro 

29. ox 

30. oasis 



31. puppy 

32 pulley 

33. radius 

34. ratio 

35. studio . 
26. survey 

37. stamen 

38. tooth 

39. vortex 

40. zero 



130. SPECIAL RULES OF NUMBER. 

I. Proper Names preceded by titles, as Mr. Brown, Miss 
Brown, may be made plural in two different ways : ( 1 ) By 
making the title plural ; as, Mr. Brown, Messrs. Brown ; 
Miss Brown, Misses Brown. (2) By making the name 
plural ; as, the two Mr. Browns; the three Miss Browns. 



182 



GRAMMAR 



II. Compound Nouns usually form the plural by adding 
the sign of the plural to the most important part of the 
compound, that is, to the part which is described by the 
rest of the word ; as, father-in-law ', fathers-in-law ; ox-cart, 
ox-carts ; Knight-templar, Knights-templar. When the 
compound is regarded as a whole, the last part is plural- 
ized ; as, forget-me-nots, spoonfuls, Englishmen, runaways. 

A few compounds add the plural sign to both parts ; as, 
manservant, manservants. 

Caution. Ger7nan, talisman, Brahtnan, Ottoman, Mussulman 
are not compounds of man ; they form their plurals with s. 

III. Figures, Letters, Signs, etc., are made plural by 
adding 's; as, Cross your Vs. Cancel the 9's. Make the 
+ 's and — 's larger. His Vs and my's and me's, and his 
" I told you so's " were wearisome. 

Numbers written in words form their plurals regularly ; 
as, Count by twos, fives, tens. 

IV. Plurals without Inflection. Some nouns are sin- 
gular or plural without change of form according to their 
use ; as, one sheep, two sheep ; a brace of ducks, two brace 
of ducks ; he sold a hundredweight of sugar ; two hundred- 
weight of sugar. Similar words are : pair (of shoes), head 
(of cattle), cod, deer, grouse, salmon, swine, trout. (V., p. 274.) 

V. Plurals of Different Meaning. Some nouns have 
two plurals, which differ in meaning. The more important 
are as follows : 



Singular. Plural. 

( Brothers (of a family) 

I Brethren (of a society) 

( Cloths (pieces or kinds of cloth) 



1. Brother 

2. Cloth 



(Clothes (garments) 



3. Die 

4. Fish 

5. Genius 

6. Head 

7. Index 

8. Pea 

9. Penny 

10. Shot 

11. Sail 

12. Staff 



THE 


NOUN 


(dies 
(dice 


(coining stamps) 


(for playing games) 


(fishes 
(fish 


(number) 


(quantity) 


(geniuses 


(human beings) 


(genii 


(imaginary beings) 


(heads 
(head 


(belonging to the body) 


(of cattle) 


(indexes 
( indices 


(tables of contents) 


(algebraic signs) 


(peas 
(pease 


(number or quantity) 


(quantity) 


(pennies 
(pence 


(number of coins) 


(quantity, i.e. value) 


(shots 


(number of discharges) 


(shot 


(number of balls) 


(sails 


(pieces of canvas.) 


(sail 


(number of vessels) 



183 



staffs or staves (sticks or canes) 
staffs (military term) 



Exercises. 



Ex. I. Tell how the meaning of the first sentence in 
each group differs from the meaning of the second : 

(He assists his brothers. 

( He assists his brethren. 

j The tailor showed some new cloths. 

(The tailor showed some new clothes. 

(Teddy's bank contains six pennies. 

(Teddy's bank contains six pence. 

(The milkman gave her two cupfuls of milk. 

(The milkman gave her two cups full of milk. 

(The prisoner had two dies in his pocket. 

(The prisoner had two dice in his pocket. 

How many shot were there ? 

How many shots were there ? 

A story of two genii. 

A story of two geniuses. 



1 84 GRAMMAR 

Ex. II. Write the plurals of the following : 
Mr. Andrews Miss Henry 



Knight-templar 
hanger-on 


Major McDowell 
commander in chief 


\ 
sheep 


four-per-cent 


son-in-law 


4 


countryman 
Norman 


woman-servant 
major-general 


Oh, my 
why 



131. NOUNS THAT DO NOT CHANGE THEIR NUMBER. 

Always Singular. Some nouns, from the nature of what 
they represent, are always singular both in form and 
in meaning; as, wisdom, music, courage, pride, patience, 
gold, platinum. Others are usually singular ; as, rhetoric, 
lead, copper, wheat, rye, sugar, wine. 

When used in the plural, wines, sugars, etc., mean different kinds of 
wine, of sugar, etc. ; coppers are things made of copper. 

Always Plural. Some nouns from the nature of what 

they represent are always or usually plural, both in form 

and in meaning. The following are examples : 



i. ashes 


?• 


pincers 


13. tongs 


2. annals 


8. 


proceeds 


14. thanks- 


3. bitters 


9- 


riches 


15. trousers 


4. dregs 


10. 


scissors 


16. victuals 


5. eaves 


11. 


suds 


17. vitals 


6. goods 


12. 


tidings 


18. mumps 


iral in Form, S 


>ingu 


lar in Meani: 


ng. Some nouns are 



always plural in form, but are generally singular in mean- 
ing; as, amends, gallows, measles, news, pains (meaning 
care), mathematics, and other nouns ending in ics, except 
athletics, which is generally plural. 

In the use of some of these nouns custom is divided. When in 
doubt consult an unabridged dictionary. 



THE NOUN 



I8 5 



Exercise. 

Write the plural, if any, of each given singular, and the 
singular, if any, of each given plural ; note those having no 
singular and those having no plural: 



1. dozen 


5- 


series 


9. flax 


13- 


politics 


2. pairs 


6. 


pride 


10. rye 


14. 


mathematics 


3. million 


7- 


news 


11. oats 


iS- 


athletics 


4. trout 


8. 


mumps 


12. goods 


16. 


thanks 



132. COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 

Some nouns in the singular form denote several objects 
of the same kind taken together ; as, flock, crowd, group, 
committee. 

What does each of the following nouns represent ? 



flock 


audience 


choir 


army 


crowd 


committee 


jury 


mob 


fleet 


regiment 


class 


tribe 


group 


convention 


school 


herd 



Each of these nouns represents a collection of objects of a certain 
kind ; as, flock represents a collection of animals ; crowd, a collection 
of people ; group, a collection of objects. Can the name flock be 
given to any one animal ? Can the name crowd or group be given to 
any one person or object? 

Definition. A name that represents a collection of objects, but 
does not apply to any one of the objects, is called a Collective Noun. 

Collective Nouns : Singular or Plural. The collective 
noun at times conveys a singular idea, and at other times 
a plural idea. 

When a collective noun names a number of persons or 



186 GRAMMAR 

things considered as one whole, it is called a Collective Noun 
of Unity, and its verb and pronoun are singular in form. 

When a collective noun stands for a number of persons 
or things regarded as separate individuals, it is called a 
Collective Noun of Plurality, and its verb and pronoun are 
plural in form. 1 

Compare the following parallel sentences : 

Collective Nouns of Unity. Collective Nouns of Plurality. 

i. The committee (as a body) i. The committee (as individ- 

reports favorably. uals) differ on that question. 

2. The jury will be confined 2. The jury will be confined 
in its room. (That is, in a room until they agree. (That is, until 
belonging to the jury as a body, the individuals agree.) 

not as individuals.) 

3. A herd of cattle was in the 3. A herd of cattle were graz- 
field. ing in the field. 

"When a collective noun is pluralized it loses its collec- 
tive character and becomes simply a common noun; as, 
Many herds of cattle were grazing on the plain. 

The noun herds in this sentence refers to a number of collections, 
or groups, and may be applied to any one of the groups, hence it is 
not a collective noun. 

Exercise. 

Select appropriate pronouns and verbs, giving your reason 
for each selection : 

1. A number of people (was, were) seen in the distance. 

2. The number of people present (were, was) one hundred. 

3. A party of men (were, was) mounting their horses. 

4. The party (is, are) now deciding on its platform. 

5. The army (invades, invade) the country. 

1 A collective noun of unity may name either animate or inanimate objects, but 
a collective noun of plurality usually names living beings only. 



THE NOUN 187 

6. The army eagerly (pursues, pursue) pleasure as (its, their) 
chief good. 

7. The congregation (attends, attend) to (its, their) duties well. 

8. The congregation at Irving Chapel (was, were) large. 

9. The regiment (consists, consist) of 1000 men. 

10. The regiment took off (its, their) knapsacks. 

11. The lowing herd (wind, winds) slowly down the hill. 



133. RELATION 07 NOUNS. 
You have learned that words must be related in order 
to convey a meaning or form a sentence. Do the following 
words form a sentence ? 

Letters the Bruce Grant to gave. 

If we form these words into a sentence, as, Bruce gave 
the letters to Grant, by a change of order we bring them 
into Relation to one another. 

The different relations of the nouns in this sentence 
are shown by their position or order. The noun Bruce 
occupies the position of subject and has the subject rela- 
tion ; letters is used as the object complement, and has 
the object relation ; Grant is used as the object of a 
preposition, and also has the object relation. 

Exercise. 

Analyze or diagram the following sentences, and give the 
use and relation of each noun : 

1. Our thoughts are heard in heaven. — Young. 

2. Politeness costs nothing and wins everything. — Montagu. 

3. Money, says the proverb, makes money. — Adam Smith. 

4. Men shut their doors against a setting sun. — Shakespeare. 



188 GRAMMAR 

5. Our words have wings but fly not where we would. 

— George Eliot. 

6. Never make a defense or apology before you be accused. 

— Charles I. 

7. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean — roll ! 
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain ; 
Man marks the earth with ruin, — his control 
Stops with the shore. — Byron. 



134. INFLECTION TO SHOW RELATION. 

Let us again examine this sentence : 

Bruce gave the letters to Grant. 

Does this sentence tell to whom the letters belonged ? 

If we wish to say that Bruce gave to Grant the letters 
of Lincoln, or the letters belonging to Lincoln, we may 
express the thought more briefly by using the apostrophe 
and s ( 's ). Thus, 

Bruce gave Lincoln's letters to Grant. 

The sign apostrophe and s ( 's ) added to the noun 
Lincoln shows the same relation that is denoted by the 
word of or the words belonging to. 

This is the only use of nouns in which the relation is 
shown by an inflection, or a change in the form of the 
word. 1 In all other uses it is shown by the position of the 
word in the sentence, or by the use of a preposition. 

If we write the above sentence and omit the possessive 
sign ('s) from the noun Lincoln, a different meaning will 
be conveyed; as, 

Bruce gave Lincoln letters to Grant. 
1 Pronouns are inflected to show three different relations. 



THE NOUN 189 

This means, Bruce gave to Lincoln letters addressed to 
Grant. 

The inflection apostrophe and s ('s ) is added to Lincoln 
to show its possessive relation to the noun letters, and is 
an example of Case Inflection, or Case. 

Definition. Case is a variation in the use or form of a noun or 
pronoun to express its relation to other words. 

The Latin language has more than twenty different inflections, or 
case endings, to show relation ; as, a, ae, us, u, arum, orum, ibus, 
ubus, etc. Nouns in our language once had four inflections, but the 
ordinary naming form of the noun has taken the place of two of 
these earlier forms so that nouns now have but two case forms : 

1. The Nominative, or naming form. 

2. The Possessive, or form used to express possession. 1 

We speak of a noun, however, as having a third case, the Objective 
Case, to designate its objective use, or relation. 

This is because pronouns have an objective form to show the 
objective relation, and it is, therefore, convenient to use the term 
objective case in parsing nouns. 

Note in the following that the noun man has the same form in both 
the nominative and the objective relation : 

Man is to man, the sorest, surest ill. — Young. 

Man A is \ ill 



the 
to I man 



surest 



sorest 



If we use the pronoun he instead of man in the above sentence we 
must change its form to show the objective relation ; as, He is to him, 
not He is to he. 

He A is \ ill 



surest 



the 
to 1 him 



1 For other uses of the possessive case see pp. 196, 197. 



go 



GRAMMAR 



135. OUTLINE OF CASE RELATIONS. 

According to its use a noun or a pronoun may have dif- 
ferent relations to other words in sentences. For conven- 
ience these relations are grouped in three eases, as is shown 
in the following summary, which may be used for reference : 



Nominative 
Case. 



II. 

Objective 

Case. 



Relation. 

i. As subject of a fi- 
nite verb (Gr. 72). 

2. As attribute com- 
plement, except as in 
6 below (Gr. 66). 



f Bruce met the postman. 



3. As a 
comple- 
ment of \ 
a transi 
tive verb 



a. Object 
comple- 
ment(Gr. 
66). 

b. Facti- 
tive com- 
plement 

t(Gr. 68). 



4. As object of a prep- 
osition, expressed or 
understood (Gr. 69). 



5. As subject of an 
infinitive (Gr. 72). 

6. As attribute of an 
expressed subject of 
to be 1 (Gr. 66). 



met 1 postman 
~ihe 



"i Bruce 



The secretary is Bruce. 

secretary A is \ Bruce 
TThe 



The postman met Bruce. 

postman A met | Bruce 
: \The~ ~ 



They named the boy Bruce. 

They A named / Bruce \ boy 
the 



r It was a picture of Bruce. 
// A was \ picture 



of 1 Bruce 



He gave Bruce a letter. 

He A gave \ letter 

I (to) 1 Bruce \a_ 

He expects Bruce to go. 



He 



A expects 



B> 



JV 



I believe him to be Bruce. 



..... him I \ to be \ Bf 

I j\ believe \ ' ' v 



1 See note on the next page at end of summary. 




THE NOUN 191 

r He received Bruce 's letter. 

7. As a possessive _, . . , . ,, 

' ~ •{ He A received \ letter 

modifier (Gr. 20.) | '» p^y 

Note. An attribute noun or pronoun is in the nominative case unless attribu- 
tive to the expressed subject of an infinitive, when it is in the objective case ; as, 
It is he. They believe me to be him. 

// seems to be he. For me to desire to be him is 

Its being he made no difference. foolish. 

Special Case Relations. 

1. When a noun or pronoun is used as an appositive it is in the 
same case as the noun whose meaning it explains ; as, 

Nominative Case : The secretary, Bruce, will w?'ite. 
Possessive Case : He went to Bruce the secretary 's desk. 

Objective Case : We saw the secretary, Bruce, 

2. When a noun or pronoun is used without relation to any other 
part of speech it is said to be in the Nominative Case, Independent. 

1. By direct address : Come into the garden, Maud. 

2. By exclamation : Alas, poor Yorick ! 

3. By pleonasm (use of unnecessary words) : The boy, 
oh, where was he ! (Oh, where was the boy ! ) 

4. By specification (titles of books, names of compa- 
nies, etc., when used alone) : Steps in English ; Brown 
& Bole. 

3. A noun or pronoun used absolutely is in the Nominative Case. 

He being a foreigner, his family was protected. 
(See Absolute Phrase, Gr. 82, p. 115.) 

4. When a noun is used to express measure of some kind and at 
the same time is an adverbial modifier it is called an Adverbial 
Objective, and may be said to be in the Objective Case ; as, 

1. We waited an hour. 1 1. We j\ waited 

2. The book is worth a dollar. 1 Jj 

3. We walked two miles. 1 

1 In such sentences some prefer to supply a word or words ; as, 

1. We waited (for) an hour. 

2. The book is (of the) worth (of) a dollar. 

3. We walked (through) two miles. 



192 GRAMMAR 

By a study of the foregoing the relation and case of nouns and 

pronouns may be determined. 



136. PARSING. 

Examine the outline under Grammar 135 and find the different uses 
of the noun. In what relation is each noun used? In what case? 

We are now prepared to parse the noun. 

To parse means, (1) to classify the word as a part of 
speech ; (2) to point out its inflection, if it has any ; and 
(3) to tell its syntax, or its relation to other words in the 
sentence. 

Definition. Syntax treats of the arrangement, relation, and 
agreement of words in sentences. 



137. PARSING THE NOUN. 

To parse a noun, give its — 

1. Class, 3. Number, 

2. Gender, 4. Case, 

5. Syntax, or use in the sentence. 

Examples. The groves were God's first temples. 

Groves is a common noun — the name of a class; in the neuter 
gender — it denotes things without sex; 3d person — spoken of; in 
the plural number — it denotes more than one ; in the nominative case 
— it is the subject of the verb were. 

God's is a proper noun, masculine gender, 3d person, singular num- 
ber, possessive case, modifying temples. 

Te7nples is a noun, common, neuter, 3d, plural, nominative — the 
attribute complement of were. 

To the Teacher. As the pupil becomes familiar with the several distinc- 
tions and can readily give the reasons, the shorter forms may be used. After the 



THE NOUN 



193 



distinctions are well understood, all the particulars that do not affect the structure 
of the word may be omitted ; as, Temples is a noun, attribute of the verb were. 

Parsing should never be made a mere mouthing of words without thought. 
This may be avoided by having the pupil parse in writing. 



Models for Written Parsing. 



groves A were \ temfiles 



The 



C.N. 

Neut. 

3- 
Plur. 

Nom. 

Sub. of were. 



C.N. 

Neut. 

3- 

Plur. 
Nom. 

Att. Comp. 
were. 



first 



God' 



P.N. 
Masc. 

3- 

Sing. 
Poss. 
modifies 
te?nples. 



The Sen- 
tence 
Words. 


Class. 


Gender. 


Per- 
son. 


Num- 
ber. 


Case. 


Syntax or Use. 


In 

this 

place 

ran 

Cassius' 

dagger 

through 


Prep. 
Adj. 

Com. noun 
Verb 

Prop, noun 
Com. noun 
Adv. 


Neut. 

Masc. 
Neut. 


3 

3 
3 


Sing. 

Sing. 
Sing. 


Obj. 

Poss. 
Nom. 


Obj. of Prep, in 

modifies dagger 
Subj. of ran. 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Analyze the sentences in the following para- 
graphs, and then parse orally the nouns in each sentence : 

But all my dreams were soon put to flight by an order from the 
office to trim the yards, as the wind was getting ahead. I could 
plainly see, by the looks the sailors occasionally cast to windward and 
by the dark clouds that were fast coming up, that we had bad weather 
to prepare for, and had heard the captain say that he expected to be 
in the Gulf Stream by twelve o'clock. In a few minutes " eight bells " 
was struck, the watch called, and we went below. 



STEPS ENG. 



I9 4 GRAMMAR 

I now began to feel the first discomforts of a sailor's life. The 
steerage in which I lived was filled with coils of rigging, spare sails, 
old junk, and ship stores, which had not been stowed away. More- 
over, there had been no berths built for us to sleep in, and we were 
not allowed to drive nails to hang our clothes upon. 



Ex. II. Diagram the following sentences, and parse the 
nouns according to the model for written parsing : 

i. The South is the land of cotton. 

2. Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard. 

3. No man's a faithful judge in his own cause. 

4. No capital earns such interest as personal culture. 

5. Ye mariners, -the night is gone ! 

6. Spenser, the author of the " Faerie Queene," lived in the time 
of Queen Elizabeth. 

7. His friend remained a week. 

8. Their work having been finished, the pupils were dismissed. 

9. We, the members of the club, have elected Robert president. 

10. They believed him to be their friend. 

11. The smith, a mighty man was he. 



Ex. III. Select tlie proper case, giving reason ; then 
diagram the sentences and parse each noun : 

1. The (man, man's) being poor should not make him miser- 
able. 

2. The (man, man's) being poor, the boys treat him kindly. 

3. The (man, man's), being poor, knew not what to do. 

4. We could not prevent (John, John's) going. 

5. (Brown, Brown's) being a politician, we were unable to prevent 
his election. 

6. (Brown, Brown's) being a politician aided him very much. 

7. No one ever dreamed of that (man, man's) running for office. 

8. The (writer, writer's) being a scholar, his conclusions were not 
doubted. 

9. I never thought of (it, its) being (she, her). 

10. Much depends on (you, your) studying the foregoing care- 
fully. 



THE NOUN 195 

Ex. IV. Punctuate and diagram the following, telling 
the case of each appositive (for punctuation, see Appositive 
Expressions, Gr. 10 and 126, pp. 20, 176; also Comp. 107, 
pp. 150-152.): 

1. The wisest of the Jewish kings Solomon became a fool. 

2. Mr. McKinley the president sent his message to Congress. 

3. A Greek philosopher Diogenes lived in a tub. 

4. The Greek philosopher Diogenes lived in a tub. 

5. Cotton a fiber is woven into cloth. 

6. Have you read the history of Pizarro the conqueror of Peru? 

7. The diamond pure carbon is a brilliant gem. 

8. The creator of "Robinson Crusoe" Daniel Defoe was the 
author of more than two hundred works. 

9. We the people of the United States do ordain and establish 
this Constitution. 

10. I John was a witness. 

11. We girls object. 

12. We the older boys protest. 



138. THE FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Note. Case, as applied to nouns, has importance only in con- 
nection with the use of the possessive sign. The nominative and ob- 
jective cases of nouns, being alike in form and not inflected, might be 
disregarded if it were not for the inflection of pronouns and the con- 
venience of parsing. 

Observe the inflection of the nouns in the second col- 
umn to show the relation denoted by prepositions used 
with the corresponding noun in the first column : v 

1. The work of the pupil is ex- 1. The pupil's work is excel- 
cellent. lent. 

2. The work of the pupils is 2. The pupils' work is excel- 
excellent. lent. 

3. The work of the children is 3. The children's work is ex- 
excellent, cellent. 



196 GRAMMAR 

4. The novels by Dickens are 4. Dickens's novels are popu- 
popular. lar. 

5. The coat for James is new. 5. James's coat is new. 

With which of the nouns is the s of the possessive sign omitted ? 
In the second sentence is the noun pupils singular or plural ? 
In the third sentence is the noun children singular or plural? 
In the fifth sentence is the noun James singular or plural ? 

It is seen that the possessive case of all the nouns in 
the above exercise is formed by the addition of the apos- 
trophe and s fs) except the noun pupils, which is a plural 
noun that ends in s. 

Rule. Nouns form the possessive case by the addition of an 
apostrophe and s fs) , except plural nouns ending in j, to which the 
apostrophe alone is added. (Comp. 40, p. 59.) 

Remarks on the Possessive Form. 

1. A few singular nouns that end with an s sound are usually 
written in the possessive by adding the apostrophe alone : especially 
in the phrases for appearance' sake, for conscience' sake, and for good- 
ness' sake. But the tendency is to add apostrophe and s fs) even if 
the singular noun does end with an s sound ; as, Charles's book, the 
princess's carriage, her mistress's wishes. 

2. When a compound noun or a group of words treated as one 
name (a firm-name) denotes possession, the sign of the possess- 
ive is added to the last noun only. (See 4 and 9 in the next 
exercise.) 

3. The possessive relation may be expressed by a prepositional 
objective; as, a frie?id of Charles's wife, instead of Charles's wife's 
friend. 

4. The sign of possession should be used with the word imme- 
diately preceding the substantive naming the thing possessed ; as, 
John's book ; John and Mary's book; John the student's book; John's 
books as well as Mary's (books). 

Occasionally the word naming the thing possessed may be omitted 
(see last example). 



THE NOUN 



197 



5. As a rule, neuter nouns should not be used in the possessive 
case. The beauty of the flower is better English than The flower's 
beauty. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Justify the use of each possessive sign in the 

following : 



Prepositional Objectives. 

A house belonging to the man. 
A dictionary made by Webster. 
Shoes designed for misses. 
The father of both Henry and 

John. 
The father of Henry and the 

father of John. 

4. father 



Possessives. 

i. The man's house. 

2. Webster's dictionary. 

3. Misses' shoes. 

4. Henry and John's father. 

5. Henry's father and John's. 



Henry and John's 



father 




Henry^s 



{father) 



Johrts 



6. 

7- 

8. 

9- 
10. 
11. 



13- 
14. 



The administration of Mayor 

Hays. 
Books belonging to Alice. 
The tub owned by Diogenes. 
The store of Little & Co. 
At the home of Mr. Smith. 
At the store of Weldon the 

hatter. 
The reign of Victoria, queen 

of England. 
The work of one day for the 

wages of three days. 
The fault of somebody else. 



6. Mayor Hays's administra- 

tion. 

7. Alice's books. 

8. Diogenes's tub. 

9. Little & Co.'s store. 

10. At Mr. Smith's. 

1 1 . At Weldon the hatter's store. 

12. Victoria queen of England's 

reign. 

13. One day's work for three 

days' wages. 

14. Somebody else's fault. 



Notes: i. In the 4th example Henry and Joh?i is a group of 
words treated as one name, a firm-name. So also Little &* Co. in the 



198 



GRAMMAR 



9th example. 2. In the 5th example father is understood after 
John's because every possessive case is immediately followed by 
the substantive, expressed or understood, to which it has the possess- 
ive relation. This principle also applies to the 10th. 3. As to the 
14th, since the adjective else always follows the substantive which 
it limits, and since the possessive must be next to the name of the 
thing possessed, the sign is, according to idiom (pp. 204, 205), annexed 
to else. 



Ex. II. 

possessive 



2. 

3- 

4- 

5- 
6. 

7- 

8. 

9- 
10. 
11. 
12. 

13. 
14. 

15- 

16. 

17- 

18. 
19. 
20. 



Change from the prepositional objective to the 

A history of Moses. 

The barking of the dogs. 

A picture of William. 

A picture owned by William. 

The works of Dickens. 

The greetings of the Friends. 

The family of Governor Hastings. 

Clothing for men and for boys. 

The home of both Mary and Ann. 

The home of Mary and that of Ann. 

The crew of Yale or Harvard. 

The record of the ball players. 

The home of his son-in-law. 

The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. 

By the silvery light of the Queen of Night. 

The death of Grant and of Sheridan. 

The fault of some one else. 

The work of five years. 

The wages of one month. 

The wishes of the princess. 



Ex. III. Change from the possessive to the prepositional 
objective, thereby deciding whether or not each is correctly 

written: 

1. John and Henry's boat. 

2. John's boat and Henry's. 

3. John and Henry's boats. 

4. John's boats and Henry's. 



THE NOUN 199 



5. Mason and Dixon's line. 

6. Hayes and Wheeler's administration. 

7. Hayes's administration and Grant's. 

8. Men's and boys' clothing. 

9. Men's and boy's clothing. 

10. Ned the bootblack's box. 

11. Infant's and children's cloaks. 

12. Infants' and children's cloaks. 

13. A and B's money. 

14. A's money and B's. 

15. Grant's army and Lee's. 

16. Grant's and Lee's armies. 

17. Orr and Co.'s store. 



Ex. IV. Insert the apostrophe in its proper place, giving 
your reason : 

1. That boys hats. 

2. Those boys hats. 

3. Ciceros oration. 

4. The childs illness. 

5. My only daughters husbands sister. 

6. My two daughters husbands sister. 

7. These witnesses statements are very long. 

8. This witnesss statements are long. 

9. The suns and the fires heat differ. 

10. The suns rays are quite warm to-day. 

11. The ladys bonnets. 

12. Those ladies bonnets. 

13. That pupils books. 

14. Two years interest. 

15. My daughters going need not prevent Anns calling. 

16. My daughters friend is going to the city this morning. 

17. An honest mans work is noble. 

18. A mans foes are often those of his own household. 

19. Peters wifes aunt. 

Ex. V. Decide which is the better form, the possessive 
or the prepositional objective, and change where desirable : 



200 GRAMMAR 

i. Peter's wife's mother. 

2. John's brother's wife's sister is sick. 

3. This is my brother's father-in-law's opinion. 

4. France's and England's interests differ widely. 

5. My brother's wife's sister's drawings have been much admired. 

6. The drawings of the sister of the wife of my brother have been 
much admired. 

7. The severity of the sickness of the son of the King caused alarm. 

8. Essex's death seemed to haunt Elizabeth's mind. 

9. The " Iliad " is Homer the great poet's work. 

10. Howard the philanthropist's life was a noble one. 



139. REVIEW. 

Test Questions. 1. What is the difference between a proper 
noun and a common noun ? 2. Of what importance is this classifica- 
tion of nouns ? 3. When does a common noun begin with a capital 
letter? 4. How do the terms gender and sex differ in meaning? 
5. In what three ways is the gender of nouns shown? 6. What is 
person in grammar ? 7. Do nouns have special forms to distinguish 
person? 8. How should a proper noun in the first person be punctu- 
ated ? 9. How are common nouns in the first person punctuated ? 
10. What is meant by inflection? 11. Illustrate by example. 
12. How do nouns generally form the plural? 13. Why should the 
plural of enei?iy and that of chimney be differently formed ? 14. What 
is a collective noun ? 15. How are nouns inflected to show relation ? 
16. How many cases have nouns? 17. How many case forms? 
18. Give the rule for forming the possessive case of nouns. 19. How 
is joint ownership shown by the possessive sign ? 20. What substi- 
tute for the possessive maybe used? 21. How many different uses 
may a noun have in a sentence ? 22. Name them. 2^. Write sen- 
tences using the noun James in eight different constructions. 



140. THE PRONOUN. 

What is a pronoun ? What is the antecedent of a pronoun ? What 
is a relative pronoun? What is person? When is a pronoun in 
the first person? In the second person? In the third person? 



THE PRONOUN 201 

About sixty words in the English language designate 
persons or objects without mentioning their names. As 
they are generally used instead of nouns, they are called 
Pronouns. From the various ways in which they are used 
pronouns may be divided into four classes, — Personal, 
Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective. 



141. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Five pronouns, /, you, he, she, and it, are used, in 
their various forms, to distinguish, first, the speaker, I; 
second, the one spoken to, you ; and third, the person or 
thing spoken of, he, she, and it. Because these' pronouns 
always show their grammatical person by different forms 
or words (not because they stand for persons), they are 
called Personal Pronouns. 

Definition. A Personal Pronoun is one whose form indicates 
the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 



142. THE INFLECTION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal pronouns change their forms by inflection more 

than do any other words in our language, the different 

forms of the pronouns /, you, he, she, and it numbering 

twenty-eight. Some of these changes are so great that 

different cases of the same pronoun are entirely different 

words ; note the different cases of the personal pronouns 

/, she, and he in the following : 

First Person: I, my, mine, me, we, our, ours, us. 
Second Person : you, your, yours. 



202 GRAMMAR 



Third Person 



Masc. he, his, him. 
Fern, she, her, hers. 
Neuter, it, its. 

they, their, theirs, them. 

Some of these changes in form or word, as we have seen, indicate 
person; as, I, you, he: while others indicate gender; as, he, she, and 
it. In what person and number do the variations to show gender 
occur? (See declension in Gr. 143.) 

Tell the case, or relation, of the pronouns in the following : 

laid 1 him 



He laid him down and closed his 


B.\ 


/ 1 down 
— ( and 


eyes. 




\ closed | eyes 



Note in this sentence three different forms of the same 
pronoun to distinguish the nominative, possessive, and 
objective cases. 

The number of inflections that pronouns have, causes 
their frequent misuse. To assist in using them properly 
their inflection is given in tabular form for reference, and 
rules are added which should be learned and applied. 



143. THE DECLENSION OF THE PRONOUN. 

Pronouns of the First Person. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative. I we 

Possessive. my or mine our or ours 

Objective. me us 

Pronouns of the Second Person. 

Common Form. Grave Style. 

Sing, and Plu. Sing. Plu. 

Nominative, you thou ye or you 

Possessive. your or yours thy or thine your or yours 

Objective. you thee you 



THE PRONOUN 203 

Pronouns of the Third Person. 







Singular. 




Plural. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


Masc. Fern. Neut. 


Nominative 


e. he 


she 


it 


they 


Possessive. 


his 


her or hers 


its 


their or theirs 


Objective. 


him 


her 


it 


them 



Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by annexing 
se/f and its plural selves to certain forms of the personal 
pronouns. They are : 

Singular, myself thyself, yourself himself, herself, itself. 

Plural. ourselves yourselves themselves 

They have the same form for both nominative and objec- 
tive, and have no possessive. The place of the possessive 
is supplied by using for emphasis the definitive adjec- 
tive (Gr. 182, p. 267) own with the ordinary possessive 
form ; as, 

I have my own seat. 

Take your own seats. 

He has a home of his own. 

In the last sentence the emphatic form of the pronoun 
his own, is used substantively as the object of the preposi- 
tion of. (See page 204, This book of mine.) 



144. USES OF PRONOUNS. 

Rule i. A pronoun used as the subject of a finite verb or as a 
nominative absolute, is in the nominative case and should have the 
nominative form. 

Rule 2. A pronoun used as the subject of an infinitive or as the 
object of a verb or preposition, is in the objective case and should 
have the objective form. 

Rule 3. A pronoun used as an attribute is in the nominative case 



204 GRAMMAR 

unless attributive to the expressed subject of an infinitive, when it is 
in the objective case. 

Why did we not need these rules when learning about the noun? 
What rule have you learned for writing the possessive case of nouns ? 
How do we form the possessive case of pronouns ? Give the possess- 
ive case singular and plural of the personal pronouns. Is there an 
apostrophe ( ' ) used with these forms ? 

Caution. Never use an apostrophe with the words ours, yours, 
his, hers, its, theirs. 

Two Forms of the Possessive. The possessive form 
of the pronoun has the power of an adjective and modifies 
a noun expressed or understood. When it adjoins the 
noun, the first of the two possessive forms is used ; when 
the noun is not present or the possessive is used as a com- 
plement, the second is used. For example : 

i. Your book is new but mine is old. 

Mine may be parsed as a personal pronoun, possessive form, but'used in the 
subject relation ; the subject of the verb is. 

book f\ is \ new mine A is \ old 

I Yo«r ] but ] 

2. The book is yours. 3. This book of mine is old. 

book \\ is \ yours Jook^ i^_old_ 

This 



of 



Some grammarians would dispose of these possessive forms by 
substituting a word modified by the possessive, as, 

This book of ray books is old, 

and then parse the pronoun as in the possessive case, modifying the 
noun. But one may properly speak of this book of mine even if there 
is but the one book. Also, the explanation involves ambiguity in such 
expressions as He is a friend of mine. A friend of mine might not 
be a friend of my friends. We may either parse mine as possessive 
in form, but used idiomatically in the objective relation, as the object 
of the preposition of or we may say it is an idiomatic expression ; 



THE PRONOUN 



205 



i.e., an expression established by usage, but not governed by the 
narrow confines of any grammatical principle. The expressions 
meseems and methinks are idiomatic and are equivalent to it seems 
to 7ne. 

Remark. The longer forms 7nine and thine were once the only 
forms, and were used until the seventeenth century, when they 
dropped the n sound before nouns beginning with a consonant, and 
became my and thy ; as, 

1. Look upon my son for he is mine only child. — Luke ix. 38. 

2. Lend thy hand. Wipe thou thine eyes. — Shakespeare. 

These forms are now used only when they are not followed by the 
nouns they modify. 

Uses of Compound Personal Pronouns. The compound 
personal pronouns are used for the most part reflexively 1 
in the objective case, or they are added for emphasis in 
either the nominative or the objective to the nouns or 
pronouns which they represent ; as, 



Used Re- 
flexively. 



1. I hurt ?nyself. 

2. A house divided 

against itself. 

C 3a. He himself is 
sick. 



I A hurt 1 myself 
house A divided 



He-. 



Used for 
Emphasis. 



I against \ itself 
himself A is \ sick 



He, 



h imself A is \ sick 



They A saw \ president — himself 
{the 



3^. He is sick him- 
self. 

4. They saw the 
president him- 
self. 

Grave Style. The grave style of the pronoun of the second per- 
son, — including the singular forms thou, thy, thine, and thee, and the 
plural nominative iormye, — is used now by the Friends, or Quakers, 
and also in poetry and in sacred services. The common forms you, 

1 A pronoun is called reflexive when it is the object in a sentence and refers 
back (reflects) to the subject as its antecedent. Formerly the reflexive pronoun 
was often used without the self or selves ; as, / do repent me. — Shakespeare. 
Now I lay me down to sleep. — Child 's Prayer. 



206 GRAMMAR 

your, andyours are used in all other cases. Remember, however, that 
you singular is followed by the same form of the verb as you plural, 
and use this form of the verb with it, as, you were, you are, etc., even 
when speaking to only one person. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Analyze and diagram the following numbered 
sentences ; parse the personal pronouns, and explain why 
each case form is used. Thus : 



They expect hi?n to come. Oral. They is a personal pro- 

noun, third person, common gen- 
der, plural number; it is in the 
nominative case as the subject of 



rr,, , , . I him I \ to come 
They A expect | / \ 

P.P. RR 



3- 3- 

Com. Masc 

Plur. Sing. 

Nom. Obj 



They A knew [ A A was \ she 



the finite verb expect (Rule i). 
Him is a personal pronoun ; it 

is in the objective case, being 
Sub. of Sub. of used as the subject of the infini- 

expect. to come. five to come (Rule 2). 

They knew it was she. Oral. She is a personal pro- 

noun, third person, feminine gen- 
der, singular number ; it is in the 
P-P * nominative form, because it is 

3 ' used as an attribute referring to 

g . ' the pronoun it, which is in the 

Nom nominative case as the subject of 

Attrib. re- tne finite verb was (Rule 3). 

ferring to 
the Sub. it. 

i. We expect him to do his part. 

2. You know he will do right, 

3. They thought it was she. 

4. Second thoughts, they say, are best. — Dry den. 

5. At last they steal us from ourselves away. — Pope. 

6. A dream itself is but the shadow. — Shakespeare. 

7. Then like fire he meets the foe, 
And strikes him dead for thine and thee. — Tennyson* 

8. Nature designed us to be of good cheer.— Jerrold^ 



THE PRONOUN 20/ 

9. Methinks, with his heavy heart and weary brain, Time should 
himself be glad to die. 

10. Pilgrim, I greet thee ; silver and gold have I none, but such 
as I have, give I unto thee. 

11. The sun veils himself in his own rays to blind the gaze of 
the too curious starer. — Alcott. 

12. Give me x the erect and manly foe 
That I may return blow for blow. 

13. He cast off his friends, as a huntsman his pack, 

For he knew, when he chose, he could whistle them back. 

— Goldsmith. 

14. You hear that boy laughing ? You think he's all fun ; 
But the angels laugh, too, at the good he has done ; 
The children laugh loud as they troop to his call, 

And the poor man who knows him laughs loudest of all. 

— O. W. Holmes. 

15. Chancing to raise her eyes as the elder lady was regarding her, 
she playfully put back her hair, which was simply braided upon her 
forehead, and threw into her beaming look such an expression of 
affection and artless loveliness, that blessed spirits might have smiled 
to look upon her. — Charles Dickens. 

Ex. II. Select two personal pronouns that may be used 
in each of the following blanks, and justify their case 
forms : 

1. William and shall take a walk to-day. 

2. Shall go with ? 

3. shall walk through the meadow near where 

grandfather lives. 

4. Get a book at the library for Elizabeth and 



5. They awarded the prize to who wrote the composi- 
tion entitled " Bird Life." 

6. No one expected to win the prize offered by 

great-uncle. 

1 In expressions like Give me the book, Write me an excuse, etc., the pronouns 
are in the old dative case ; that is, they are in a case which is no longer used, but 
which, in the early history of our language, was used and recognized. Modern 
writers, however, prefer to say that such words are in the objective case, being 
indirect objects or being governed by prepositions understood. 



208 GRAMMAR 



7. He is a better writer than 



are younger than either Harry or 



9. Neither you nor . can perform the task. 

10. I fear that it is 

11. I know it to be 

12. If I were I should go to school. 

13. girls are happy. 

14. He would not believe girls. 

15. It was whom you thought to be 

16. I respect you more than 

17. This book is not 



145. PERSONAL PRONOUNS: CAUTIONS. 

I. The simple personal pronoun and its' antecedent 
should not be used as subjects of the same predicate. . 

Ex. I. Determine which of the following forms is correct: 

1. Papa he {or Papa) bought me a sled. 

2. George and Thomas {or George and Thomas they) went home- 

3. And the ball it {or And the ball) rolled into the sewer. 

4. The clock it {or The clock) was twenty minutes fast. 

5. The mouse and the cat they {or The mouse and the cat) ran a 
race. 

2. Seldom use myself as a substitute for the simple 
personal pronoun. 

Ex. II. Determine which of the following is correct : 

1. She invited Sarah and (myself or me) to go with her. 

2. James and (I or myself) are in the same society. 

3. That is between you and (I, or myself, or me). 

4. He told you and (myself, or I, or me) to bring the ferns. 

5. The invitation is for you and (myself or me). 

3. Never use the personal pronoun them when the 
adjective those is required. 



THE PRONOUN 209 

Ex. III. Determine which of the following is correct : 

1. (Them or Those) are mine ; the others are yours. 

2. Will you lend me (them or those) books ? 

3. He told (them or those) to be there at 9 o'clock. 

4. Give me a peck of (those or them) potatoes. 

5. (Those or Them) boys are old enough to have more judgment. 

4. Never use the forms hisself theirs elf tkeirselves, 
yourn (your own), Jiern, or his'n. 

Ex. IV. /;/ the blanks insert the proper emphatic com- 
pound personal pronoun or the proper emphatic foi'm of the 
possessive (my own, etc.) : 

1. The victim declared that he was not the criminal. 

2. The books on that shelf are 

3. Preachers do not always practice what they preach. 

4. Do it 

5. We will look after her. 

6. It belongs to me 

7. My father gave it to us to be 



8. The teacher . . could have done no better. 

9. I know that it is even though you do claim it. 

10. The boys paid for the broken glass. 

5. The common and the grave forms of the pronouns of 
the second person should not occur in the same sentence. 

Ex. V. Correct the following : 

1. Thou art sad ; have you heard bad news? 

2. Bestow thou upon us your blessing. 

3. You can't always have thy wish realized. 

4. Love thyself last, and others will love you. 

5. Thy smile is a benediction and your words a delight. 

6. Do not use he, it, they, or any other pronoun when 
its reference to an antecedent is not clear. Avoid ambiguity 



STEPS ENG. 



210 



GRAMMAR 



by repeating the antecedent or by changing indirect dis- 
course to direct discourse. 



Ambiguous. 

The boy can not leave his 
father, for if he should leave him 
he would die. (Not clear which 
would die.) 

Harry promised his father 
never to abandon his friends (said 
to his father that he would never 
abandon his friends). (Whose 
friends ? ) 



Clear. 

The boy can not leave his 
father, for if he should leave him 
his father would die. (Antece- 
dent repeated.) 

Harry gave his father this 
promise (said to his father) : " I 
will never abandon my friends." 
Or " I will never abandon your 
friends." (Direct discourse.) 



Ex. VI. Change the following, making each express a 

clear meaning : 

i. Arthur tried to see Ben in the crowd, but could not because he 
was so short. 

2. The girl asked her mother how old she was. 

3. He said to his friend that, if he did not get better soon, he 
thought he'd better go home. (Give four different meanings.) 

4. The man told the boy that his dog had killed his chickens, and 
that it was but fair that he should pay him for his loss. 

5. This farmer went to his neighbor and told him that his cattle 
were in his fields. 



146. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

(Review Gr. 79, p. 111.) 

1. We know not what lies 
beyond. 



2. We know not that which 
lies beyond. 





what 


/\ lies 


We l\ know 


J beyond 


1 not 






We l\ know | 


that 





>hich A lies 

I beyond 

Notice that in the first sentence the pronoun what introduces the 
noun clause what lies beyond; but in the second sentence the pronoun 



THE PRONOUN 211 

which relates to its antecedent that, to which it connects the adjective 
clause which lies beyond. 

These pronouns are called Relative Pronouns. 

Definition. A Relative Pronoun is one which introduces an 
adjective clause or a noun clause that is not directly interrogative. 1 

The chief relative pronouns are who, which, that, and 

what. Who is thus declined, the singular and the plural 

being the same : 

Nominative . . . who 
Possessive .... whose 
Objective .... whom 

The other relative pronouns are not declined, except that 
whose is sometimes used as the possessive form of which, 
a usage that many writers feel is seldom warranted. 



Exercise. 

Tell whether each of the relative pronouns in the follow- 
ing sentences introduces a noun clause or connects an adjec- 
tive clause with an antecedent : 

i. Who steals my purse steals trash. 

2. He that getteth wisdom loveth his own soul. 

3. Cherish patriotism, which is each citizen's birthright. 

4. I have learned what true liberty is. 

5. He that plods will reach the goal. 

6. The service of a friend is to make us do what we can. 

7. Who seeks for aid must faithful be to friend. 

8. Truth is the highest thing that man may keep. 

9. Men who are ennobled by study are more numerous than they 
who are ennobled by nature. 

1 In such expressions as / know who went, the word who, because it intro- 
duces an indirect question, is considered by some grammarians an interrogative 
pronoun (Gr. i49i pp. 215, 216). The treatment here given seems simpler. 



212 GRAMMAR 

147. USES OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Who (whose, whom) should usually have an antecedent 
that designates persons. 

Which should have as its antecedent a word designating 
animals or things. 

Who and which are known as the Coordinate Relatives. 
Ordinarily they should be used only to introduce a clause 
that adds a new idea. This clause is not necessary in 
order to make known the author's primary thought ; its 
relative always has the force of a connective and a personal 
pronoun. For example, in the sentence " Cherish patriot- 
ism, which is each citizen's birthright," the relative clause 
adds a new thought ; the author's primary thought is Cher- 
ish patriotism ; and the relative which is equal to the con- 
nective and pronoun because it, ox for it. 

Rule of Punctuation. Clauses containing who or which 
used coordinately should be set off by a comma or by commas. 
(Comp. 107, pp. 150-152.) 

That may have as its antecedent a word designating 
persons, animals, or things. It should be used whenever 
the antecedent includes both persons and things. (See 
sentence 16 in next exercise.) 

That is known as the Restrictive Relative. It should be 
used whenever a relative clause is necessary in order to 
make clear the author's primary meaning, unless the use of 
who or which adds decidedly to the pleasing sound of the 
sentence. For example, in the sentence " He that plods 
will reach the goal " the clause that plods is necessary in 
order to make clear the author's primary meaning ; and 
the relative that is not equal to a connective and a personal 
pronoun. 



THE PRONOUN 213 

Rule of Punctuation. Clauses containing the restrictive 
relative that should not be set off by a comma or by commas. 
(Comp. 107.) 

This rule applies also to clauses introduced by who or which used 
restrictively. 

What (relative pronoun) seldom refers to persons. It 
always introduces a substantive clause, and always carries 
its antecedent within itself ; that is, it is equivalent to the 
adjective pronoun that plus the relative pronoun which. 
For example, He receives what he asks for y is equivalent 
to He receives that for which lie asks. 

Note. As is a relative pronoun when used after such, same, so 
much, so great, etc. ; as, He is such a ?nan as I admire. 

But is sometimes a relative pronoun after a negative; being equal 
to who not j as, There is no boy but will help his mother. 

Note. To the relative pronouns who, which, and what the suffixes 
-ever, -so, or -soever may be added, forming the Compound Relative 
Pronouns ; as, whoever, whoso, whosoever. 

Exercise. 

Insert the proper relative pronoim and tlie necessary 
punctuatiofi, if any (Comp. 107): 

1. I know the man ■ you met last night. 

2. Mr. Williams is the general's secretary has moved 

to the city. 

3. He claimed to hate music is merely popular in its 

nature. 

4. Pittsburg is a very busy city is known everywhere 

for its wealth of manufactures. 

5. He asked me a question I could not answer. 

6. The smile lit up her face was a revelation to me. 

7. A smile I am sure was infrequent with her lit up 

her face. 

8. He says that the horse you rode is unable to go 

farther. (Why which instead of that?) 



214 GRAMMAR 

9. He says my horse is a Kentucky thoroughbred is 

worth #800. 

10. Stop at the house is next to the mill. 

11. My house is near the river stands in a large yard. 

12. Her hair was dark and glossy hung in ringlets. 

13. People live in glass houses should not throw stones. 

14. I am your friend tell you this. 

15. Gen. Warren fell at Bunker Hill was a hero. 

16. My memory clings to the dear friends and country 

I left. 

17. Our only dog was called Fido went mad. 

j&. She was the finest actress I ever saw. 

19. The settlers of Plymouth are known as the " Pilgrim 

Fathers " laid the foundations of religious liberty in America. 

20. She is the same person I met at your home. 

21. He is a man in I have little faith. 

22. Columbus was a Genoese discovered America. 

23. The wisest man lives is liable to err. 

24. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of -air is com- 
posed chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen. 

25. It is the book I had yesterday. 

26. The men and the tools . you sent for have arrived. 

27. The lady and her dog just passed, walk out together 

every day. 

28. Cotton is a fiber is woven into cloth. 

29. She is the lady to you wrote. 

30. This is a task . is without end. 

31. You know better are most at fault. 

32. Washington was the man the colonies needed. 

33. No beast so fierce knows some touch of pity. 



148. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN: CAUTIONS. 

I. To avoid ambiguity place the relative clause as near 
as possible to the word that it limits. 

Ex. I. Make a relative clause of the second sentence of 
each of the follozving pairs of sentences, placing it as near 



THE PRONOUN 215 

as possible to the modified word, and punctuating correctly 
(Comp. 107) : 

1. A dog was found in the street. It wore a brass collar. 

2. The figs were in small wooden boxes. We ate these figs. 

3. A purse was picked up by a boy. It was made of leather. 

4. I will tell my father. He is waiting at the gate. 

5. I will tell the lady. I mean the lady waiting at the gate. 

6. The love of money causes untold suffering. It is the root of 
all evil. 

7. A poor child was found in the street by a wealthy and benevo- 
lent gentleman. The child was suffering from cold and hunger. 

8. A mad dog bit a horse on the leg. The dog has since died. 

9. A gentleman going abroad for the summer will rent his house 
to a small family. It contains all modern improvements. 

10. The picture represents a dark little maid. It hangs on the 
wall. 

2. Several connected relative clauses relating to the 
same antecedent require the same relative pronoun. 

Ex. II. Insert the proper relatives, and diagram : 

A seal was carried by Washington and was 

probably shot from his watch-chain, was found in a field after a lapse 
of eighty years. 



149. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Definition. An Interrogative pronoun is one that is used to 
ask a question. 

Its so-called antecedent is the important word in the expected 
answer. 

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. 
The old interrogative whether is not now in use. 

Who is declined just as the relative pronoun who is 
declined ( Gr. 146). Which and what have the same form 
in the objective as in the nominative. 



2l6 GRAMMAR 

Uses of Interrogative Pronouns. 

Who refers to persons only ; as, Who is president ? To 
whom was the property given ? Whose property do you mean ? 

Which asks for one out of a number and may apply to 
either persons or things ; as, Which is your book ? Which 
is your cousin ? 

What refers to animals and things ; as, What is that on 
the table ? What moves so rapidly over the floor? 

Note. Which and what are often interrogative adjectives (see 
Gr. 182, p. 268) ; as, Which man do you mean ? What manner of man 
is this ? 



150. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
An Adjective Pronoun is a word that is usually a defini- 
tive adjective (Gr. 182, p. 267),. but that does not modify 
any expressed noun ; as, The first shall be the last. None 
know it better than I. Is this your book ? 

Of the adjective pronouns, one is the best example. It refers in a 
general way to any person, and is preferable to you used in a similar 
way. Say, As one enters, one sees, rather than As you enter, you see. 
One has a possessive form, one's, and a plural form, ones*; as, One 
prefers the largest for one's private collection. The smaller ones are 
less interesting. 

None has no possessive and no plural form, but is sometimes used 
with a plural verb ; as, None of us were there. 

Other adjective pronouns are this, that, these, those, former, 
latter, few, many, some, other, any, all, and such. 



151. WHAT AND THAT: CAUTION. 
Use but that as a conjunction to introduce a noun clause ; 
do not use but what : as, Who knows but that (not what) 

he will go f 



THE PRONOUN 21J 



Who A knows 



but that 

he A will go 



The pronoun what is correctly used after the preposi- 
tion but (meaning except) as an element in an objective 
clause, the clause being the object of the preposition ; as, 
He took nothing but what I gave. 

He A took | nothing 

bu t JA S^ve \ what 



Exercise. 
Insert what or that : 

i. I can not believe but I shall see him. 

2. He knows nothing but you told him. 

3. 1 did not know but it might be done. 

4. I believe all but John told me. 



152. REVIEW. 

Ex. I. Insert the proper pronoun : 

1. do you think I met in Paris? 

2. Let you and go fishing. 

3. The jury rendered verdict. 

4. It is hard to fight those you know are right. 

5. It is the same book I lent her. 

6. People know him respect him. 

7. Boys study hard and study wisely make 

progress. 

8. I met a lady all agree is handsome. 

9. He is no better than 

10. Between you and . , that man did not deserve it. 

Ex. II. Analyze or diagram the following sentences ', and 
parse all the pronouns : 



2l8 GRAMMAR 

i. One can not always have one's choice. 

2. Do you know who that is? 

3. I do not care for either of them. 

4. The fault is yours, not mine. 

5. Who he is can not be ascertained. 

6. We should have a care for others' comfort. 

7. This medicine is what you need. 

8. What strange contrasts this world of ours presents! 

9. We shall soon see who is going. 

10. We think we know what they will do. 

11. This watch of mine runs too fast. 

12. Ask for whatever you want. 

13. Theirs have increased, ours have decreased. 

14. Give it to whoever wants it. 

Test Questions, i. Which pronouns change their forms to de- 
note person? 2. What is a reflexive pronoun? 3. In what relation, 
or case, is it used ? 4. In what cases may compound personal pro- 
nouns be used? 5. Name four pronouns that have three case forms. 
6. When or in what constructions must the nominative case form 
be used? 7. W T hat two uses have relative pronouns? 8. How does 
the relative what differ from other relatives ? 9. When are as and 
but used as relative pronouns? 10. When does a singular pronoun 
represent a collective noun? 11. With what kind of clauses is the 
relative pronoun that, and not who or what, used? 12. What is 
an adjective pronoun? 13. What is an interrogative pronoun? 
14. Do interrogative pronouns have case forms? 15. Which relative 
pronoun has case forms? 



153. THE VERB. 

What part of speech must every sentence contain? Why? Of 
what use is the verb in a sentence? What is meant by a verb of 
complete predication? How does a finite verb differ from an infini- 
tive ? In what respect are infinitives and participles alike ? 

We have learned that the verb is the most important 
part of speech in the sentence. It is the word, or the part 
of the sentence by which an assertion is made, and no 



THE VERB 219 

sentence can be formed without it. It is therefore impor- 
tant that we study its various forms, in order that we may 
use them correctly. We shall first consider the various 
Classes of Verbs. 



154. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

1. The boy hit the ball. 

2. The ball was hit by the boy. 

Observe that fhe verb in each of these sentences expresses action. 
What word in the first sentence names the object that receives the 
action or is affected by it? 

Notice that the subject of thought boy performs an act, and that 
the verb hit asserts that act as going over from the subject to the 
object ball. 

Has the second sentence an object? What part of the sentence 
represents the receiver of the action expressed by the verb ? 

A verb that expresses action which goes over to a re- 
ceiver of the act is called a Transitive Verb. Transitive 
means going over. 

Definition. A Transitive Verb is one whose action goes over 
to a receiver. 

Note. Some verbs, like have, own, inhei'it, etc., do not express 
action, yet take an object to denote that which is possessed or 
affected by them, and hence are transitive. Any verb that has an 
object is transitive. 

All verbs that are not transitive are Intransitive. 

Definition. An Intransitive Verb is one that does not involve 
the receiver of an action. 

An intransitive verb may have an attribute complement, but it 
never has an object complement. 



220 GRAMMAR 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Study the following sentences, and tell why the 
verbs in the first group are intransitive and those in the 
second group are transitive ; 

Intransitive. Transitive. 

The children play. They play games. 

The children are playing. Games are played by them. 

The pupils are singing. They are singing " America." 

The pupils sang well. "America" was sung well. 

The book lies there. She lays the book there. 

The gentleman spoke to me. He speaks German. 

He can not see well. He did not see me there. 

Strike while the iron is hot. Strike the hot iron. 

The farmer plows around the field. The farmer plows the field. 

Millet was a great artist. He painted the " Angelus." 

Turn to the lessons on Complements ; Gr. 66, and 70> pp. 
89, 90, 95, 96, and determine whether the verbs in the ex- 
ercises are transitive or intransitive. 

Point out the verbs in "Oliver Horn" pp. 65, 66, and 
tell whether they are transitive or intransitive. 

Ex. II. Make short sentences using each of the follow- 
ing verbs first transitively and then intransitively : 

Awake, blew, dissolve, fly, grind, hear, keep, pay, survive, shake, 
sounds, follow, read, shoot, spell, struck, wear, writes, tasted. 



155. ERRORS IN THE USE OF TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSI- 
TIVE VERBS. 

I. Verbs are either transitive or intransitive, according 
to their use. A few, however, are always transitive, and a 
few are always intransitive. Of these, the verbs lie and 



THE VERB 221 

lay, rise and raise, in their various forms, are frequently 
misused, as are also the verbs sit and set. 
The following forms are : 

Intransitive. Transitive. 

Have no object. Must have an object. 

Lie, lying, lain. Laying, laid. 

(Reclining.) (Placing something.) 

Rise, rose, rising, risen. Raise, raised, raising. 

(Getting up.) (Lifting something.) 

Sit, sat, sitting. 1 Set, setting. 

(Taking a seat, or remaining seated.) (Placing something.) 

2. The form lay is used either transitively or intransi- 
tively according to its meaning. When it means to rest, 
lay is intransitive, and is used to denote action in the past ; 
as, We lay down yesterday. (Not We laid down yester- 
day.) When lay means to place something, it is transitive, 
and is used to denote action in the present ; as, We lay the 
book down now. 

The forms set and setting are used intransitively when 
they mean going below the horizon or beginning a journey. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Write ten sentences showing how lay, set, and 
setting may be used either transitively or intransitively. 

Ex. II. Use the proper forms of lie and lay : 

i.I in bed till 7 o'clock every morning. 

2. He always his books just where he shouldn't 

them. 



3. I on the lounge last night a long time. 

4. She generally abed until she is called. 

1 The forms of sit may be used transitively, as in the sentence, They sat them 
down to weep. — Milton. 



222 GRAMMAR 

5. Mary has not the paper where I told her to 

it. 

6. This morning I in bed till 9 o'clock. 

7. That book has on the desk too long. 

8. Fred on the sofa most of his time. 

9. " Now I me down to sleep." 

10. Harry, down and take a nap. 

11. Harry down and took a nap. 

12. When we are weary, we down. 

13. James, your ruler on the desk. 

14. He could not on his right side. 

15. Have you my books away ? 

16. John, have you there long? 

17. He told me to down, and I down. 

18. Samuel was on the floor, and Willie was __ 



bricks in rows. 

19. He it there yesterday. 

20. She told me to the slate down, and I it 

down. 

Ex. III. Use the proper forms of rise and raise : 

1. I at 6 : 20 every morning. 

2. The balloon had before I came. 

3. The curtain will at 8 to-night. 

4. The sun at 7. 

5. Freddie, the window, please. 

6. The moon an hour before I 



7. Uncle was just from dinner as I came in. 

8. When you saw us, we were the boat. 

9. I earlier this morning than I had for 

long time. 

10. The boy and read. 

11. The boy . and reads. 

12. She more money than I. 

13. The allies the blockade. 

14. Do you like to see a balloon ? 



15. Mother put the bread by the stove to - 

16. They entered just as the curtain was 

17. The river is very rapidly. 

18. The river two feet last night. 

19. Shall I or lower the picture? 



THE VERB 223 

Ex. IV. Use the proper forms of sit and set : 

1. I alone all day yesterday. 

2. The sun in the west. 

3. Harry down and talked to me. 

4. Harry, down and talk to me. 

5. They out for New York yesterday. 

6. Kate, your dress well. 

7. The bird is on her eggs. 

8. The little girl is the table. 

9. She and I usually together. 

10. John there and reads. 

11. John, there and read. 

12. Go and down somewhere ! 

13. She told me to there, and I down. 

14. the 2amp on the table, and by the 

window. 

15. Has she on those steps long? 

16. She has there for at least an hour. 

17. The boy had been out traps for quail, but was now 

quietly b> the fireside. 

18. The table has been for some time. 

19. I laid my book away, and by the window. 

Ex. V. Use the proper forms of lie, lay, rise, raise, 
sit, or set : 

1. The shower has the dust. 

2. My watch on the bureau all day yesterday. 

3. It was reported that the boy had four dollars. 

4. I am so weary that I must down. 

5. Why have you here so long? 

6. You have your coat on my new hat. 

7. Shall I down for a little while ? 

8. I late this morning. 

9. You may here v 

10. Shall we now ? 

11. It was reported that the river had four feet. 

12. A good man should and must 

rather down with loss, than . unjust. 



224 GRAMMAR 

156. PRINCIPAL VERBS AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Note the uses of the verbs has and lost in the following 
sentence : 

The boy has lost his ball. 

Which verb may be omitted with but slight change of meaning in 
the sentence ? 

If we omit the word lost the sentence would convey an 
entirely different meaning : 

The boy has his ball. 

It will be seen that lost is the principal verb used in 
making the predication, and that has is merely combined 
with it as an Auxiliary, or as a help in expressing its mean- 
ing. 

Definition. A verb that is used to help express the meaning 
of another verb is called an Auxiliary Verb. 

The auxiliaries are do (does), did; be (with all its different forms); 
have (has), had; shall, should; will, would; may, might; can, could; 
and must. 

Exercise. 

Turn to Composition ioo, pp. 139, 140, and point out 
the auxiliary and the principal verbs. 



157. VERBAL INFLECTIONS. 

Like nouns and pronouns, verbs have different forms 
(made partly by inflection and partly by auxiliaries) to 
show their different uses in the sentence. 



THE VERB 



225 



158. VOICE. 



Let us observe again the two sentences 



1. The boy hit the ball. 



2. The ball was hit by the boy. 



boy A hit \ ball 
I The Uhe 



ball A was hit 



I The I by \ boy 

Do these sentences express the same thought ? Wherein do they 
differ? In the first sentence what word is the subject? How is this 
same word used in the second sentence ? What receives the action 
expressed by the verb in the second sentence ? 

Notice that the object of the first sentence becomes the 
subject of the second, and the simple verb kit x \s changed 
to zvas hit. This change in the form of a transitive verb 
helps to give variety of expression, and is called Voice. 

Definitions. Voice is the variation in the use and form of a 
transitive verb that shows whether the subject is the doer or the 
receiver cf the action. 

The Active Voice represents the subject as the doer of the action. 

The Passive Voice represents the subject as the receiver of the 
action. Passive means receiving or enduring. 



The Active Voice is used when 
we wish to direct attention to 
the actor. 

The Passive Voice is used (1) 
when we wish to direct attention 
to the act j (2) when we wish 
to conceal the actor (see 2) ; 
(3) in speaking of the act 
when the actor is unknown 
(see 3). 

Only transitive verbs have voice. Some intransitive verbs followed 
by an attribute resemble the passive form ; as, He is gone. They a?-e 

STEPS ENG. IS. 



i. Mr. Logan sent the mes- 
senger. 
2. Who stole the goods ? 

1 . The messenger was sent by 

Mr. Logan. 

2. The messenger has been 

sent. 

3. The goods were stolen. 



226 GRAMMAR 

come. Gone and come are here used as attribute complements to 
denote a condition of the subject, and are not verbs in the passive 
voice expressing an action received by the subject. These forms are 
generally used when speaking of inanimate objects ; as, The melan- 
choly days are come. The flowers are gone. But they should not, as 
a rule, be used to predicate anything of sentient beings, when their 
own volition is to be expressed ; as, Our friends have (not are) come. 
Robert has (not is) gone to school. 



159. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS. 

When a verb in a sentence is changed from the active 
to the passive voice, the object of the sentence becomes 
the subject, and the subject becomes the object of a prep- 
osition ; as, 

Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

i. The children loved Long- 2. Longfellow was loved by the 

fellow. t children. 

If the verb has both a direct and an indirect object, the 
indirect object remains unchanged ; as, 

1. The children gave him a 2. A chair was given him by the 

chair. children. 

children A gave \ chair chair A was given 



I The I (to) 1 him a 



(to) 1 him 



by 1 children 



the 



Sometimes the indirect object is made the subject of the 

passive verb ; as, 

3. He was given a chair by the children. 

He A -was given \ chair 
J by 1 children \a 
~~lhe l_ 



THE VERB 227 

In this construction the direct object remains unchanged, and for 
convenience may be called a Retained Object. The broken line of 
the diagram shows that it is not a real object. 

A factitive complement of a verb in the active voice be- 
comes an attribute in the passive voice ; as, 

1. They named the city Rome. 2. The city was na?ned Rome 

by them. 
They A named / Rome \ city city A -was n amed\Rome 

' the I The I by \ them 



Since an intransitive verb never has an object, it can not be used in 
the passive voice. However, an intransitive verb and a preposition 
may sometimes assume the office of a transitive verb. In this case 
the object becomes the subject, and the preposition becomes a part 
of the verb ; as, 

1. My uncle laughed at him! 2. He was laughed at by my uncle* 

{ridiculed} He A was laughed at 

uncle ^ \ laughed at \ him 1 by \ uncle 

I My I my 

Exercise. 

Determine the voice of each verb in the following sen- 
tences ; rewrite each sentence, changing the verbs in the 
active voice to the passive and those in the passive to the 
active : 

1. Autumn leaves were gathered by the girls. 

2. They gave the teacher the leaves. 

3. The dog drew the cart. 

4. The child was bitten by the dog. 

5. We saw a wild duck. 

6. Does the farmer sell corn ? 

1 Another way of disposing of the active form is the following: 

uncle A laughed 
1 My I at 1 him 



228 GRAMMAR 

7. The Southern States export cotton. 

8. The book was read by the teacher. 

9. We were taught French by Miss Stone. 

10. French was taught by Miss Stone. 

11. The man does his work well. 

12. Rip Van Winkle entered the house. 

13. Did the servant break the vase ? 

14. The way across the mountains was known by the travelers. 

15. The travelers saw the snow-capped Alps in the distance. 

16. The American flag was raised by the captain. 

17. We informed our friends of our arrival. 

18. William Penn founded Philadelphia. 

19. This composition was written by James. 

20. Helen set the dish on the first shelf. 

21. Did she lay the letter on the desk ? 

22. The Pilgrims settled Boston. 

23. The English called these people Puritans. 

24. We were elected officers by the society. 

25. Whittier wrote many poems against slavery. 

26. A breeze sets every leaf in motion. 



160. MODE. 

We use verbs in different ways and give them several 
forms, in order to show the manner, or mode, in which a 
thought is asserted. 

In the following, note the different forms, or modes, of 
the verb be used to assert our thoughts about James : 

1 . James is here. 

2. / wish that James were here 1 

3. James may be here. 

4. James, be here to-morrow. 

The verbs in these sentences show by their forms four different 
manners of asserting thought. Is asserts it as a fact ; were asserts it 
as contrary to fact (James is not here) ; may be asserts it as possible ; 
and be expresses it as a command. 



THE VERB 229 

Not only the form of a verb, but also its use, which is 
sometimes shown by its position in the sentence, may 
make known the manner of assertion. 

We study diligently. Study diligently. The dropping of the sub- 
ject changes the assertion of a fact into a command. 

Definition. Mode is that form or use of a verb that shows the 
manner of assertion. 

Exercise. 

Study the following sentences and tell whether each verb 
asserts a thought — (1 ) as a fact ; (2) as a wish or condition 
implying the contrary to be true ; (3) as possible ; (4) as a 
command : 

1. Emma studies her lesson. 

2. Emma, study your lesson. 

3. If Emma be sick (I don't believe she is) she need not study. 

4. If Emma is sick (she may be sick) she should not study. 

5. Emma can study. 

6. Dare to do right. 

7. If the earth is round men can sail around it. 

8. If the earth be flat men can not sail around it. 

9. If he have not a friend he may quit the stage. — Bacon. 
10. Great truths are portions of the soul of man. — Lowell. 



161. TENSE. 

/ come now. 

I came yesterday. 

I shall come to-morrow. 

Observe that the different forms of the verb come in the above 
sentences denote an action as taking place at three different times. 

Which denotes present time ? Which denotes past time? Which, 
future time ? 



230 GRAMMAR 

This variation in the form of the verb to denote the time 
of the action is called Tense. Tense is an old French word 
for time. 

Definition. Tense is a variation in the form of a verb to denote 
the time of an action or event. 

A verb denoting present action is in the Present Tense; as, 
They go. 

A verb denoting past action is in the Past Tense ; as, They went. 

A verb denoting future action is in the Future Tense ; as, They shall 
go, or will go. 

Thes£ three tenses mark the three great divisions of time, and are 
called Primary Tenses. The indicative mode has three additional 
tense forms called Secondary Tenses to denote completed or per- 
fected action. They are the prese?it perfect, the past perfect, and the 
future perfect. 

The Present Perfect Tense is formed by putting have {has) before 
the past participle (Gr. 74, p. 104) ; as, They have gone. 

The Past Perfect Tense is formed by putting had before the past 
participle ; as, They had gone. 

The Future Perfect Tense is formed by putting shall have or will 
have before the past participle ; as, They will have gone. 

Exercise. 

The following verbs are in the past tense. Write each 
in the future tense with the subject I or we, and also with 
some other subject. Use the auxiliary shall with I or we, 
and will with any other subject ; as, " I (or we) shall go ; " 
"You (or he, they, the boy, etc.) will go." 



began 


blew 


brought 


caught 


chose 


crept 


cut 


drank 


drove 


bid 


found 


froze 


went 


hit 


hid 


laid 


said 


sold 


shone 


wrote 


struck 


threw 


wore 


won 


hoped 


lived 


stopped 


tried 



THE VERB 231 

162. NUMBER AND PERSON OF THE SUBJECT, AND 
THE S-FORM OF THE VERB. 

We have learned that simple word subjects are either 
nouns or pronouns, and that these two parts of speech may 
be inflected (changed in form) to indicate difference in 
number. 

Number, therefore, is a property of nouns and pronouns, 
and is that form or use by which they denote one or more 
than one. 

Although verbs do not possess the "property of num- 
ber," they regularly change some forms because of the 
number of the subject. Note the following verbs used in 
the present tense and in the present perfect : 

Present. 

/ walk. He walks. 

You walk. The man walks. 

We walk. A dog walks. 
They walk. 

Present Perfect. 

I have walked. She has walked. 

You have walked. The girl has walked. 

We have walked. The cat has walked. 
The people have walked. 

In what person is each of the subjects in the first column? In 
what number ? 

In what person and number is each of the subjects in the second 
column ? 

In the present tense how do the verbs in the first column differ 
from the verbs in the second ? 

In the present perfect tense how do the auxiliary verbs in the first 
column differ from those in the second ? 

These sentences suggest the following principle : 

All subjects in the third person, singular number, when used 
with verbs in the present tense, are followed by the s-form of the 



232 GRAMMAR 

verb, and when used with verbs in the present perfect tense, are 
followed by the s-form of the auxiliary. 

In making the .r-form of verbs the same rules generally apply as in 
adding j- to nouns to form the plural ; thus, 

Catch, catches ; lie, lies ; marry, marries ; journey , journeys. 



163. USE OF THE VERB WITH SINGULAR AND WITH 
PLURAL SUBJECTS. 

In determining whether to use or to reject the j-form of 
the verb, everything depends upon the number of its sub- 
ject. To decide whether a subject is in the singular or in 
the plural number, one must look beyond the mere form 
of the word to the character of the thought expressed 
by it. The following examples may prove helpful : 

Singular Subjects. Plural Subjects. 

i. The secretary has arrived. 2. The secretaries have arrived. 

3. The secretary and treasurer 4. The secretary and the treas- 

was seen. urer were seen. 

The article 1 the not being re- The article the being repeated, 

peated, secretary and treasurer is secretary and treasurer refer to 

the name or title of but one person, different persons. 

5. A red 'and ' white flag has been 6. A red and a white jlag have 

sent. been sent. 

The article a not being re- The article a being repeated, 

peated, the adjectives red and the adjectives red and white refer 

white refer to the same flag. to different flags, the noun jlag 

being understood after red. 

7. My friend a7id neighbor (one 8. My friend and 7ny neighbor 

person) has just died, (different persons) have just died. 

9. The" Pleasures of Memory" 10. The pleasures of memory 

was published in 17Q2. are delightful. 

" Pleasures of Memory''' 1 is a Pleasures is the subject ; a plural 

noun, the name or title of a book. noun. 

1 The adjectives a, an, and the are called Articles. See Gr. 182, p. 268. 



THE VERB 



233 



Singular Subjects. 

11. John and Will's sled is 
broken . 

The meaning of this sentence 
is that the two boys own a sled to- 
gether, and therefore the verb is 
singular. Note also that the pos- 
sessive sign comes at the end of 
the firm-name. 



15. Bread and milk is whole- 
some food. 

Bread and milk is a noun, the 
name of a kind of food. 



Plural Subjects. 

12. John and Wills sleds are 
broken. 

The " firm " John and Will has 
more than one sled. 

13. Johrfs sled and Wills are 
broken. 

Each boy owns one sled, the 
noun sled being understood after 
Will's. 

14. John's sleds and Will's 
are broken. 

Each owns more than one sled. 

16. Bread and milk are plen- 
tiful. 

Bread and milk are spoken of 
as different objects,'not "consid- 
ered as a whole." 



17. Nine tenths of the soil is 
sand. 



18. Nine tenths of the words 
are misspelled. 

When the subject is a partitive word (a word meaning a part), and 
is followed by of its number is determined by the number of the noun 
or pronoun following of. In 17 the noun soil is singular; in 18 the 
noun words is plural. 

19. A variety of music charms 20. A variety of beautiful ob- 

the ear. jects please the eye. 

Nouns like variety, abundance, plenty, etc, which are not plural, 
nor strictly collective nouns, are treated as partitive words and must 
be regarded as plural in effect when they are followed by a plural 
modifier to which the verb makes direct reference ; as, Plenty of 
oranges are brought from Florida. This is true, however, only in 
sentences similar to 17 to 20 inclusive. 



21. The choir sings its selec- 
tions well. 

The choir, as a body, as one 
whole, sings. Therefore, choir is 
a collective noun of unity ; that 
is, singular number. 



22. The choir respect their 
leader. 

The choir, not as a whole but as 
individuals, respect their leader. 
In this sentence, choir is a col- 
lective noun of plurality. 



234 • 



GRAMMAR 



Singular Subjects. 

23. Three times one is three. 

In this sentence the meaning 
is " One (unit or thing) taken three 
times is three." The subject one 
is an adjective pronoun, singular 
number. 

25. The number of deserters 
arrested was small. 

The word number when pre- 
ceded by the, is singular. 



Plural Subjects. 

24. Three times two are six. 

In this sentence the meaning 
is " Two (units or things) taken 
three times are six." The subject 
two is an adjective pronoun, 
plural number. 

26. A number of deserters were 
arrested. 

(See 19 and 20, and the remark 
following them.) 



Great care must be taken not to mistake an apparent subject for 
the true one. Thus, 



27. An exai7iijiation of his af- 
fairs shows him to be a bankrupt. 

The real subject being exami- 
nation, the form shows is cor- 
rect. By mistaking affairs for 
the real subject, one is liable to 
say show. 



28. There are more than one 
error in his work. 

This sentence being introduced 
by the expletive there, the sub- 
ject follows its verb. The real 
subject is more (meaning more 
errors), hence are is correct. By 
mistaking error for the real sub- 
ject, is would be the verb. A 
better form, however, is, " There 
are more errors than one in his 
work." 

29. This is the only one of the 30. This is one of the best books 

books that is valuable. that have been published. 

One, and not books, is the ante- Books, and not one, is the ante- 
cedent of the relative pronoun cedent. The relative pronoun 
that. That is, therefore, in the that is, therefore, plural. 
singular number. 

In negative expressions great care must be taken to 
avoid the very general error of rejecting the j-form of 
the verb with singular subjects. This is often true before 
the contraction nt for not : 

He doesn't (not He don't). She doesn't (not She don't). It doesn't 
(not // don't). (Comp. 49, PP- 7h 72.) 



THE VERB 235 

He {She or //) isn't (not " ain't"). 
He {She or //) hasn't (not "hain't"). 

fm not; You aren't, or You're not; We aren't, or We're not (not 
"ain't"). 

I {You or We) haven t (not " hain't""). (Comp. 99, p. 138.) 

Exercise. 

Decide which of the verbs in parentheses, in the following 1 
sentences, is the correct one, and give your reason for your 
decision : 

1. Books (is, are) a noun. » 

2. A ball and socket (forms, form) a universal joint. 

3. The committee (is, are) at variance on some points. 

4. What sounds (has, have) each of the vowels ? 

5. Three fourths of the men (was, were) discharged. 

6. Each of the three (brings, bring) a different excuse. 

7. John, when (was, were) you in the city ? • 

8. The end and aim of his life (is, are) to get money. 

9. Part of the crop (was, were) injured. 
10. He (doesn't, don't) like it. 

n. The power and influence of his work (is, are) well known. 

12. To relieve the wretched (was, were) his pride. 

13. One of you (is, are) mistaken. 

14. Nine tenths of our happiness (depends, depend) on this. 

15. The able scholar and critic (has, have) a fine library. 

16. Why (is, are) dust and ashes proud ? 

17. Young's "Night Thoughts" (is, are) his greatest poetical 
work. 

18. There (comes, come) the boys. 

19. There (is, are) several reasons for this. 

20. A number of boys (was, were) present. 

21. The number of pupils absent (was, were) small. 

22. His hope and ambition (was, were) to be a lawyer. 

23. The story of his adventures, which (was, were) recently pub- 
lished, (is, are) probably truthful. 

24. A new class of words (is, are) explained in this lesson. 

25. (Was, were) either of these men considered honest? 

26. Hence (arises, arise) the six forms for expressing time. 



236 GRAMMAR 

27. There (is, are) no data by which it can be estimated. 

28. There (seems, seem) to be no others included. 

29. In piety and virtue (consists, consist) man's happiness. 

30. Ambition is one of those passions that (is, are) never satisfied. 

31. There (was, were) no memoranda kept. 

32. In the savage mind, there (seems, seem) to be hardly any ideas 
but those which enter by the senses. 

33. With him, to will and to do (is, are) the same. 

34. Neither of the letters (was, were) received. 

35. In all her movements there (is, are) grace and dignity. 

36. One of the cities which (was, were) built still (remains, remain). 

37. One regiment (is, are) waiting for the order to march. 

38. A black and white horse (was, were) sold for $100. 

39. To profess regard and to act differently (marks, mark) a base 
mind. 

40. Enough of his original energy and power (was, were) left to 
render his enemies uneasy. 

41. The Society of Friends (was, were) founded by George Fox. 



164. USE OF THE VERB WITH SINGULAR AND WITH 
PLURAL SUBJECTS {Continued). 

I. Two or more singular subjects connected by or, nor, 

and also, and too, and not, but not, if not, or as well as, 

may be said to form a compound subject whose meaning is 

singular ; as, 

1. John or James attends. 

2. Neither John nor James attends. 

3. John, and also Jaines, attends. 

4. John, and James too, attends. 

5. John, and not James, atte?ids. 

6. Johtt, but not James, atte?ids. 

7. John, if not James, attends. 

8. John, as well as James, attends. 
Notice the commas. 

Although these subjects are, for convenience, called "compound," 
the fact is that they are simple subjects belonging to different propo- 
sitions, or statements. Thus, 



THE VERB 237 

I. John f\ (attends) James A attends 

The verb attends in the 1st and 2d sentences, agrees with James, 
and is understood with John. In the 3d to 8th inclusive, the verb 
attends agrees with John, and is understood with James. 

The thoughts in 3, 4, 7, and 8, however, should usually be ex- 
pressed in some less confusing form. 

2. When two or more singular subjects connected by 
and are preceded by each, every, or no, they are said to 
form a compound subject whose meaning is singular, and 
which requires a singular verb ; as, 

1. Each book and paper was in its place. 

2. Every leaj and every twig teems with life. 

3. No oppressor and no tyrant triumphs here. 

These so-called compound subjects are really simple subjects be- 
longing to different propositions. That is to say, the verbs agree 
with the subjects next them and are understood with the other 
subjects. Thus, 

I, book A (was, etc.) paper A was 

Each I ' and \ (each)\ | in \ place 



3. When two or more subjects requiring different num- 
ber forms are connected by or or nor, the verb should agree 
with the one nearest it ; as, 

1. Either you or I am expected at the meeting. 
(You are expected at the meeting, or I am.) 

2. Neither you nor he is allowed to go in. 
(You are not allowed to go in, nor is he.) 

3. Either the captain or the sailors are to blame. 
(Either the captain is to blame, or the sailors are.) 

4. Either the sailors or the captain is to blame. 
(Either the sailors are to blame, or the captain is.) 

Each of these four sentences is an example of a contracted sentence, 
one verb being omitted. This construction should not, as a rule, be 



238 GRAMMAR 

used unless the subjects require the same number form. Either the 
predicate should be completed with the first subject, or the form of the 
sentence should be changed. (See sentences in parentheses.) 

1 1 Either 

you A (are, etc.) I A am expected 

\?X.\. I a t I meeting 

\the 

4. A singular nominative followed by with and an ob- 
ject should have a verb in the singular ; as, 

The museiwi, with all its treasures, was burned. 

It is better, generally, to use and, if the sense allows, and to put 
the verb in the plural number ; as, The museum and all its treasures 
were burned. 

Exercise. 

Select the proper form of the verbs, and give the reason for 
your selection : 

1. Neither John nor James (is, are) there. 

2. Every boy and girl (was, were) invited. 

3. The pupils, as well as the teacher, (was, were) pleased. 

4. The teacher, but not the pupils, (was, were) pleased. 

5. The teacher, as well as the pupils, (were, was) pleased. 

6. Neither he nor I (is, am) going. 

7. One or more lives (was, were) lost. 

8. The Carnegie Institute, with all its wonders, (is, are) free to the 
public. 

9. Question after question (was, were) asked by the child. 

10. The population of Pittsburg and Allegheny, with their sur- 
rounding boroughs, (was, were) almost half a million in 1900. 



165. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Most of the verbs of our language regularly form the 
past tense and the past participle (Gr. 74, p. 104) by adding 
ed (or d) to the simplest form of the verb ; thus : 





THE VERB 






Regular Verbs. 




Simplest Form. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


Play 


Played 


Played 


Glide 


Glided 


Glided 


Wish 


Wished 


Wished 


Love 


Loved 


Loved 


Cry 


Cried 


Cried 



239 



Some verbs, however, form their past tense and past 
participle irregularly ; thus : 





Irregular Verbs. 




Simplest Form. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle, 


Slay 


Slew 


Slain 


Ride 


Rode 


Ridden 


Wear 


Wore 


Worn 


Go 


Went 


Gone 



Definitions. A verb that forms its past tense and past participle 
by adding d or ed to its simplest form, is called a Regular Verb. 

A verb that forms its past tense and past participle in any other 
way than by adding d or ed to its simplest form, is called an Irregu- 
lar Verb. 1 

The simplest form of the verb is the present infinitive (Gr. 170, 
p. 246), without to. In all verbs except be the present indicative (Gr. 
166, p. 241), the form without s, is the same as the present infinitive 
(if any). 

Principal Parts of the Verb. The present indicative 
(without s), the past tense, and the past participle are 
the Principal Parts of the verb, because from them we can 
make all the other forms or parts. 

The present participle is sometimes given as one of the principal 
parts. To give it seems unnecessary, however, as it is always formed 
by adding ing to the present infinitive. 

l By some grammarians another classification is made, dividing verbs into 
strong and weak verbs. Those which form the past tense by a change of the 
vowel are called Strong Verbs ; as, drive, drove. All others, whether regular 
or irregular, are called Weak Verbs. 



240 



GRAMMAR 



Notes. A verb having more than one form for either the past 
tense or the past participle, or for both, is called a Redundant Verb ; 
as, present, dare; past tense, dared or durst ; present, show ; past 
participle, showed ox shown. 

If any one of the principal parts of a verb is wanting, the verb is 
called Defective. For example, beware has only the present tense. 
Can, may, must, shall, and ought have no past participle. 

Therefore the expression had ought is incorrect, and should 
never be used. 

A few verbs take as their subject the pronoun it without a definite 
antecedent: as, // rains; It is cold, etc. Verbs thus used are called 
Impersonal Verbs. 

Exercise. 

Tell of each of these verbs whether it is regular, irregu- 
lar, defective, or redundant ; then use some form of each to 
fill the following blanks (if the verb is transitive, use the 
pronoun it or some other appropriate object after the verb) : 



I 



I 



yesterday. I have 



/ eat the apple now. 
apple. 

Present. 

Am 

Begin 

Cleave {to split) 

Cleave {to adhere) 

Do 

Dare {to venture) 

Dare (to challenge) 

Eat 

Fly (to take wing) 

Flee (to run away) 

Flow, overflow 

Go 

Hang (to suspend) 

Hang {to take life) 

Have 

Lose 



/ ate the apple yesterday. I have eaten the 



Past. 

Was 
Began 
Cleft 
Cleaved 
Did 

Durst, dared 
Dared 
Ate 
Flew 
Fled 

Flowed, over- 
Went 
Hung 
Hanged 
Had 
Lost 



Past Participle. 

Been 

Begun 

Cleft, cloven, cleaved 

Cleaved 

Done 

Dared 

Dared 

Eaten 

Flown 

Fled 

Flowed, over' 

Gone 

Hung 

Hanged 

Had 

Lost 





THE VERB 


2 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Loose 


Loosed 


Loosed 


Lay (to place} 


Laid 


Laid 


Lie (to recline) 


Lay 


Lain 


Lie (to deceive) 


Lied 


Lied 


Rise (to get up) 


Rose 


Risen 


Raise (to lift up) 


Raised 


Raised 


Sit (to be seated) 


Sat 


Sat 


Set (to place, tic.) 


Set 


Set 


Dream 


Dreamed, dreamt 


Dreamed, dreamt 


Drink 


Drank 


Drunk, drank 


Ring 


Rang, rung 


Rung 


Run 


Ran 


Run 


See 


Saw 


Seen 


Sing 


Sang, sung 


Sung 


Spring 


Sprang, sprung 


Sprung 


Sink 


Sunk, sank 


Sunk 


Shrink 


Shrank, shrunk 


Shrunk. 


Dive 


Dived 


Dived 


Beware 
Ought 






Ought 






Shall 

Can 

May 


Should 

Could 

Might 










Will 
Must 


Would 

Must 
Quoth i 









241 



To the Teacher. Pupils should have practice in using the above forms 
in sentences until they can use them correctly. For a complete list of irregular 
verbs see Gr. 181, pp. 264-266. 



166. THE INDICATIVE MODE AND ITS TENSES. 

Definition. The Indicative Mode is that form of the verb used 
to assert something as a fact. It is also used to state conditions or 
suppositions thought of as facts. It is used : 

1. To make an affirmation : The earth is round. The boy's coat 
was made of silk. It rains. 

1 Rarely used. " Quoth the raven, ' Nevermore,' " 
steps eng. — 16. 



242 GRAMMAR 

2. To ask a question : Is the earth round? Was the coat made of 
silk? Will it rain to-day ? 

3. In clauses when the supposition is not necessarily contrary to 
the fact : If the earth is round (it is), men can sail around it. Though 
the boy^s coat was made of silk (it was), it did not look well. If it 
rains to-day (it may or may not), / shall not go to the picnic. (See 
Subjunctive Mode, Gr. 167, p. 243.) 

The tenses of the indicative mode are the present, the 
past, the future, the present perfect, the past perfect, and the 
future perfect. 

The Present Indicative is used to express : 

1. What is actually present ; as, That custom is quite popular now. 

2. What is true at all times ; as, The sun gives light. They proved 
that the earth is round (not was round). 

3. What occurs frequently or habitually ; as, He 'writes for the 
press. 

4. What is to occur in the future ; as, Mr. fones lectures next week. 

The Past Indicative denotes time wholly past, having no relation to 
any other past time and not including present time ; as, 

1. That custo??i was quite popular formerly. 

2. She visited the place often last year. 

The Future Indicative expresses indefinite future action or being ; as, 

1. That custom will be quite popular. 

2. She will visit the place while recoveri?ig. 

The Present Perfect Indicative expresses action or being as com- 
pleted in a period of time — an hour, a year, etc. — of which the 
present is a part ; as, 

1. That custom has been quite popular this year. 

2. She has visited the place often this summer. 

The Past Perfect Indicative expresses action or being as completed 
at or before some definite past time ; as, 

1. That custo?n had been quite popular, but it ceased at once when 
John died. 

2. She never went to Gowanda after her son's death, though she 
had visited the place often before that. 



THE VERB 243 

The Future Perfect Indicative expresses action or being that will 
have been completed at or before some definite future time ; as, 

1. Charles will have been captain just two years next Christmas. 

2. She will have visited the place three times if she goes there to- 
morrow. 



167. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE AND ITS TENSES. 

Definition. The Subjunctive Mode is that form of the verb used 
in a clause to imply that the contrary is true ; as, 

If the earth were fat (it is not), men could not sail around it. 
If /were you (I am not), / should try to understand the subjunc- 
tive mode. 

This mode may also express a wish, implying either the 
contrary to be true, or an intention unfulfilled ; as, 

O that I were a child again / 

The sentence is, that you be hanged. 

The subjunctive is so called because it is usually subjoined, or 
added, to another statement. When so used it is generally preceded 
by a subordinate conjunction, — if lest, though, etc. The conjunction 
is omitted when the verb stands before the subject ; as, 

Were / in your place, I should not go. 
If I were in your place, I should not go. 

The forms peculiar to the subjunctive mode are found in the present 
tense of active verbs, and in the present and past tenses of the verb be. 
Thus: 

1. Subjunctive Form (without s). If water run up hill, two threes 
are seven. 

Notice that the supposition "If water run up hill" is contrary 
to fact. 

2. Indicative Form (with s). If water runs down hill, two threes 
are six. 

Notice that the supposition "If water runs down hill" is not 
contrary to fact. 



244 GRAMMAR 

Notice further illustrations: 

Present Tense (expressing present or future time). 

Subjunctive Form (no s). If he be honest (he is not), he will 
pay me. 

Indicative Form (s). If he is honest (he may or may not be), 
he will pay me. 

Past Tense. 

Subjunctive Form (no s), expressing present time. If he were 
honest (he is not), he would pay me. 

Indicative Form (s), expressing past time. If he was honest (which 
you admit), why was he discharged '? 

Exercise. 

Choose the correct form : 

i. If he (was, were) near enough, I should speak to him. 

2. I wish I (was, were) wealthy. 

3. If I (was, were) he, I should accept. 

4. O that he (was, were) my brother ! 

5. Though he (was, were) very industrious, he continued very poor, 

6. Though he (was, were) an angel, I should not believe him. 

7. If he (is, be) there, ask him to come in. 

8. If it (snows, snow) next week, I can't leave. 

9. If your father (comes, come), let me know. 

10. If your father (was, were) here, you would act differently. 

11. Unless some sweetness at the bottom (lies, lie), 
Who cares for all the crinkling of the pie ? 



168. THE POTENTIAL MODE AND ITS TENSES. 

Definition. The Potential Mode is that form of the verb used 
to assert permission, power, necessity, determination, or obligation, 
by means of the auxiliaries may, can, must, might, could, would, and 
should. 

Declarative. Interrogative. 

expres , per- \ ^ m ^ m ight go. May or might he go I 
missions as, J 



THE VERB 245 

Declarative. Interrogative. 

2. To express flower; as, He can or could go. Can or could he go f 

3. To express neces- 1 

J ., ^ J. //<? must p». Must ^* p» . ? 

jz/j/y as, J 

4. To express "^ I ^ shouId Should/,,^? 

gation; as, J 

5. To express witting- \ 

?iess or determi- > //*? would £#. Would ^^ ^w . ? 

nation; as, ) 

The Potential Mode makes the assertion chiefly with the auxiliary 
verb ; as, //* can go. 

The Indicative Mode makes the assertion chiefly with the principal 
verb ; as, He has gone. 

The Tenses of the Potential Mode are the present, the 
present perfect, the /^j-/, and the past perfect. These 
"tenses," however, in no way denote the time indicated 
by their names. 

The Present Potential may denote either present or future time. 
Its auxiliaries are may, can, and fnust. As, 
/ can sing (present). 
/ may go to-morrow (future) . 
The Present Perfect Potential denotes past time. Its auxiliaries are 
may have, can have, 7nust have. As, 
I must have read the book. 
The Past Potential may denote present or future time. Its auxil- 
iaries are might, could, would, should. As, 
I should go to-day (present). 
We hoped that she would sing (future to time of hoping). 

Note. As the last example shows, the time of the past potential 
in a subordinate clause is either the same as the time of the principal 
verb or subsequent (future) to it. 

The Past Perfect Potential denotes past time. Its auxiliaries are 
might have, could have, would have, should have. As, 
This poem should have appeared yesterday. 

Note. As the last example shows, the past perfect potential im- 
plies that the act referred to did not take place. 



246 GRAMMAR 

169. THE IMPERATIVE MODE AND ITS TENSE. 

Definition. The imperative Mode is that form of the verb 
used to express a command or a request; as, 

1. Come hither, my little daughter. 

2. " Leave me not thus, sir," she said. 

3. John, lend me your knife, please. ' 

4. Hear ?ne for 7ny cause _, and be silent. 

The subject of a verb in this mode being always thou, 
you, or ye (generally understood), the verb can be used 
only in the second person. 

The imperative mode has but one tense, the present. 
The command is present, but implies a future act. 



170. THE INFINITIVE AND ITS TENSES. 

The Infinitive is the form of the verb (usually preceded by to) 
which assumes or expresses in a general way some action or state, 
but does not directly assert it of a subject. (Gr. 72, p. 98.) 

The infinitive can not be used as the predicate of a 
sentence, as its predication is merely assumed or implied. 

The infinitive is usually preceded by the sign , to. In 
some cases to is omitted ; as, 

/ saw him do the work (I saw him to do the work). 

The infinitive has two tenses, — the present and the 
present perfect. 

The Present Infinitive may denote present, past, ox future time ; as, 
He ought to go now. 
He was obliged to go yesterday. 
I asked him to go to-?norrow. 

The Present Perfect Infinitive denotes past time only ; as, 
He ought to have gone yesterday. (Every present perfect infinitive 
begins with to have.) 



THE VERB 247 

The time expressed by the infinitive may be : 

1. After that expressed by the finite verb ; as, 

Finite. Infinitive. 

He intended to see you. 
(The seeing follows the intending.) 

2. The same as that expressed by the finite verb ; as, 

Finite. Infinitive. 

He appeared to enjoy hi?nself. 
(The enjoying is at the same time as the appearing.) 

3. Before that expressed by the finite verb ; as, 

Finite. Infinitive. 

/ was proud to have been born in France. 
(Time of being born is before time of being proud.) 

The Present Infinitive should be used : 

1. In order to make known an action occurring after that made 
known by the finite verb. 

2. In order to make known an action occurring at the same time as 
that made known by the finite verb. 

The two uses are shown in the following sentences : 

1. This poe?n ought to appear (not to have appeared) to-day or to- 
morrow. 

2. / should have liked 'to see (not to have seen) him. (The seeing 
is after the liking.) 

3. I should not have let you eat (not have eaten) it. (The eating is 
after the letting.) 

4. He seemed 'to enjoy (not to have enjoyed) it. (The enjoying is at 
the same time as the seeming.) 

The Present Perfect Infinitive should be used in order 
to make known an action occurring before that made 
known by the finite verb ; as, 

1. This poem ought to have appeared (not to appear) yesterday. 

2. He is reported to have rescued (not to rescue) the man from 
drowning. (The rescuing was before the reporting.) 

3. We believed the box to have been opened (not to be opoied) by the 
wrong person. (The opening was before the believing.) 



248 GRAMMAR 

4. He appeared to have seen (not to see) better days. (The seeing 
was before the appearing.) 

Caution. Avoid the use of and instead of to; as, 

1. Come to see me often (not Come and see me often). 

2. Try to come early (not Try and co?ne early). 



171. THE PARTICIPLE AND ITS TENSES. 

The Participle is an inflected form of the verb which, like the 
infinitive, assumes or expresses in a general way some action or 
state, but does not directly assert it of a subject. (Gr. 73, p. 101.) 
The participle, therefore, can not be used as a predicate. It merely 
assumes its predication. 

Any combination of a participle with its modifiers and comple- 
ments is called a Participial Phrase. 

A substantive used only as the subject of a participle is the prin- 
cipal word of an absolute phrase. (See Gr. 82, p. 115.) 

The participle has three tenses, — the present, the past, 

and the past perfect. 

The Present Participle denotes action or being continuing at the 
time indicated by the finite verb ; as, 

John, driving through the park, met his uncle. 

The Past Participle denotes action or being completed at the time 
indicated by the finite verb ; as, 

John, driven through the park, met his uncle. 

The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being completed be- 
fore the time indicated by the finite verb ; as, 

John, having driven through the park, met his uncle. 



172. CONJUGATION. 

The orderly arrangement of all the different forms of 
the verb for the purpose of showing voice, mode, tense, 
person, and number is called Conjugation. 



THE VERB 249 

173, CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. 

Present. Past. Past Participle. 

Am Was Been. 

Indicative Mode. 
Present Tense. 
Per r 

son. 



Singular Number. Plural Number. 



1. (I) am (We) are. 

2. (You) are, or (Thou) art. (You or Ye) are. 

3. (He) is. (They) are. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
{Have, combined with the past participle.) 
i. (I) have been. - (We) have been. 

2. (You) have been, or (Thou) (You or Ye) have been. 

hast been. 

3. (He) has been, or hath been. (They) have been. 

Past Tense. 

1. (I) was. (We) were. 

2. (You) were, or (Thou) wast or (You or Ye) were. 

wert. 

3. (He) was. (They) were. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
{Had, combined with the past participle.) 
i. (I) had been. (We) had been. 

2. (You) had been, or (Thou) (You or Ye) had been. 

hadst been. 

3. (He) had been. (They) had been. 

Future Tense. 

{Shall or w ill, combined with the present infinitive.) 

Simple futurity ; expectation. 

1. (I) shall be. (We) shall be. 

2. (You) will be, or (Thou) wilt (You or Ye) will be. 

be. 

3. (He) will be. (They) will be. 



250 GRAMMAR 

Determination . 

Per- 
son. Singular Number. Plural Number. 

i. (I) will be. (We) will be. 

2. (You) shall be, or (Thou) (You or Ye) shall be. 

shalt be. 

3. (He) shall be. (They) shall be. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
{Shall or will, combined with the present perfect infinitive have been) 

1. (I) shall have been. (We) shall have been. 

2. (You) will have been, or (Thou) (You or Ye) will have been. 

wilt have been. 

3. (He) will have been. (They) will have been. 



Subjunctive Mode. 1 

• (Usually follows if, though, lest, etc.) 

Present Tense. 

1. (If I) be. (If we) be. 

2. (If you or If thou) be. (If you or If ye) be. 

3. (If he) be. (If they) be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. (If I) have been. (If we) have been. 

2. (If you or If thou) have been. (If you or If ye) have been. 

3. (If he) have been. (If they) have been. 

Past Tense. 

1. (If I) were. (If we) were. 

2. (If you) were, or{li thou)wert. (If you or If ye) were. 

3. (If he) were. (If they) were. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. (If I) had been. (If we) had been. 

2. (If you or If thou) had been. (If you or If ye) had been. 

3. (If he) had been. (If they) had been. 

1 The forms of the subjunctive mode different from those of the indicative 
in the present and past tenses are shown by full-face type. 



THE VERB 



251 



Potential Mode. 

Present Tense. 
(May, can, or must, combined with the present infinitive.) 



Per 

son. 



Singular Number. 

i. (I) may, can, or must be. 

2. (You) may, can, or must be, 

or (Thou) mayst, canst, or 
must be. 

3. (He) may, can, or must be. 



Plural Number. 

(We) may, can, or must be. 
(You or Ye) may, can, or must 
be. 

(They) may, can, or must be. 



Present Perfect Tense. 
{May, can, or must, combined with the present perfect infinitive have been.) 
(I) may,can,<?r must have been. (We) may, can, or must have been. 



2. (You) may, can, or must have 

been, or (Thou) mayst, 
canst, or must have been. 

3. (He) may, can, or must have 

been. 



(You or Ye) may, can, or must 
have been. 

(They) may, can, or must have 
been. 



Past Tense. 
(Might, could, would, or should, combined with the present infinitive.) 



(I) might, could, would, or 

should be. 
(You) might, could, would, 

or should be, or (Thou) 

mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 

shouldst be. 
(He) might, could, would, or 

should be. 



(We) might, could, would, or 

should be. 
(You or Ye) might, could, would, 

or should be. 



(They) might, could, would, or 
should be. 



Past Perfect Tense. 

(Might, could, would, or should, combined with the present perfect infinitive 

have been!) 



(I) might, could, would, or 

should have been. 
(You) might, could, would, or 

should have been, or (Thou) 

mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 

shouldst have been. 
(He) might, could, would, or 

should have been. 



(We) might, could, would, or 

should have been. 
(You or ye) might, could, would, 

or should have been. 



(They) might, could, would, or 
should have been. 



252 



GRAMMAR 



Per- 
son. 





Imperative Mode. 






Present Tense. 




Singular Number. 


Plural Number. 


you or thou). 


Be (you or ye). 


Present. 


Infinitives. 


Present Perfect. 


To be. 


Participles. 


To have been. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perfect. 


Being. 


Been. 


Having been. 



174. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOVE. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

Plural Number, 

(We) love. 



Per- 
son. Singular Number. 

1. (I) love. 

2. (You) love, or (Thou) lovest. 

3. (He) loves, or loveth. 



1. (I) have loved. 



(You or Ye) love. 
(They) love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

(We) have loved. 



(You) have loved, or (Thou) 

hast loved. 
(He) has loved, or hath loved. 



(You or Ye) have loved. 



(They) have loved. 
Past Tense. 

1. (I) loved. (We) loved. 

2. (You) loved, or (Thou) lovedst. (You or Ye) loved. 

3. (He) loved. (They) loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. (I) had loved. (We) had loved. 

2. (You) had loved, or (Thou) (You or Ye) had loved 

hadst loved. 

3. (He) had loved. (They) had loved. 



THE VERB 253 

Future Tense. 
Simple futurity j expectation. 

Per- 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

:. (I) shall love. (We) shall love. 

2. (You) will love, or (Thou) wilt (You or Ye) will love. 

love. 

3. (He) will love. (They) will love. 

Determination . 

1. (I) will love. (We) will love. 

2. (You) shall love, or (Thou) (You or Ye) shall love. 

shalt love. 

3. (He) shall love. (They) shall love. 

Future Perfect Tense. * 

1. (I) shall have loved. (We) shall have loved. 

2. (You) will have loved, or (You or Ye) will have loved. 

(Thou) wilt have loved. 

3. (He) will have loved. (They) will have loved. 

Subjunctive Mode. 
Present Tense. 

1. (If I) love. (If we) love. 

2. (If you or If thou) love. (If you or If ye) love. 

3. (If he) love. (If they) love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. (If I) have loved. (If we) have loved. 

2. (If you^rlf thou) have loved. (If you or If ye) have loved. 

3. (If he) have loved. (If they) have loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. (If I) loved. (If we) loved. 

2. (If you or If thou) loved. (If you or If ye) loved. 

3. (If he) loved. (If they) loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. (If I) had loved. (If we) had loved. 

2. (If you or If thou) had loved. (If you or If ye) had loved. 

3. (If he) had loved. (If they) had loved. 



254 



GRAMMAR 



Potential Mode. 



Present Tense. 



Per- 



Singular Number. 



i. (I) may, can, or must love. 

2. (You) may, can, or must love, 

or (Thou) mayst, canst, or 
must love. 

3. (He) may, can, or must love. 



Plural Number. 

(We) may, can, or must love. 
(You or Ye) may, can, or must 
love. 

(They) may, can, or must love. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



1. (I) may, can, or must have 

loved. 

2. (You) may, can, or must have 

loved, or (Thou) mayst, 
canst, or must have loved. 

3. (He) may, can, or must have 

loved. 



(We) may, can, or must have 

loved. 
(You or Ye) may, can, or must 

have loved. 

(They) may, can, or must have 
loved. 



Past Tense. 



1. (I) might, could, would, or 

should love. 

2. (You) might, could, would, or 

should love, or (Thou) 
mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 
shouldst love. 
3. '(He) might, could, would, or 
should love. 



(We) might, could, would, or 

should love. 
(You or Ye) might, could, would, 

or should love. 



(They) might, could, would, or 
should love. 



Past Perfect Tense. 



1. (I) might, could, would, or 

should have loved. 

2. (You) might, could, would, or 

should have loved, or (Thou) 
mightst, couldst, wouldst, 
or shouldst have loved. 

3. (He) might, could, would, or 

should have loved. 



(We) might, could, would, or 

should have loved. 
(You or Ye) might, could, would, 

or should have loved. 



(They) might, could, would, or 
should have loved. 



Per- 
son. 





THE VERB 






Imperative Mode. 






Present Tense. 




tgular Number. 


Plural Number. 


»u or thou). 


Love (yi 
Infinitives. 


su or ye). 


Present. 




Present Perfect. 


To love. 


Participles. 


To have loved. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perfect. 


Loving. 


Loved. 


Having loved. 



255 



175. PASSIVE VOICE. 

The tenses of the passive voice are the same as those of 
the active. They are made by adding the past participle 
of a transitive verb to the various forms of the verb be; thus, 



Per- 



Indicative, Present. 



Singular Number. 



i. (I) am loved. 

2. (You) are loved, or (Thou) 

art loved. 

3. (He) is loved. 



Plural Number. 

(We) are loved. 

(You or Ye) are loved. 

(They) are loved. 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Complete the passive conjugation of the verb 
love in all the modes and tenses. 



Ex. II. Write a synopsis of the verb see in the third 
person, singular number, passive conjugation ; that is, write 
the third person singular of the verb see in all the modes 
and tenses of the passive voice. 



256 GRAMMAR 

176. PROGRESSIVE CONJUGATION. 

The simplest form of the verb is used to express what 
is habitual or customary ; as, She sings. He plays the 
violin; but to represent an action as still going on (in 
progress), another form, called the Progressive, is used ; 
as, She is singing. He is playing the violin. 

The progressive form is made by adding the present 
participle of any verb to the different forms of the verb 
be, in all the modes and tenses ; thus, 

Indicative, Present. 

Per- 

Singular Number. Plural Number, 

son. & 

i. (I) am loving. (We) are loving. 

2. (You) are loving, or (Thou) (You or Ye) are loving. 

art loving. 

3. (He) is loving. (They) are loving. 

Exercise. 

Write a synopsis of the verb call in the first person, singu- 
lar, progressive form, active and passive. 



177. EMPHATIC CONJUGATION. 
The Emphatic Form is made by placing the auxiliary 
do, does, or did (dost, doth, or didst), before the present in- 
finitive, that is, the simplest form, of the principal verb. 
This applies to the present and past tenses of the indic- 
ative and of the subjunctive, and to the imperative, all 
in the active voice; thus, 

Indicative. Subjunctive. Imperative. 

(I) do love. (If I) do love. Do (you) love. 

(I) did love. (If I) did love. 



THE VERB 257 

These forms are called the emphatic form, because in 
speaking the auxiliary is emphasized ; as, / do know ; They 
did come. 

They are commonly used, however, without emphasis in 
negative and interrogative sentences ; as, / do not know. 
Did they come ? 

Do as a principal verb is conjugated regularly ; that is, its conjuga- 
tion may be written out by substituting, in Gr. 174, do for lovej did for 
the past tense loved j and done for the participle loved (see Gr. 165, 
Exercise, p. 240). 

When do is an auxiliary, parse it and its principal verb together as 
one verb. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Tell whether the form of do in each of the follow- 
ing sentences is an auxiliary or a principal verb : 

1. Do noble things. 

2. Do not envy another. 

3. Dost thou love life ? Then do not squander time. 

4. Alfred did his work well, but Howard did not do anything at all. 

5. After all, the joy of success does not equal that which attends 
the patient working. 

Ex. II. Write the following forms of the verbs call and 
see: 

1. First person, plural, present, indicative, active. 

2. Second person, singular, present perfect, indicative, passive. 

3. Third person, singular, present, subjunctive, active. 

4. Singular, imperative, active. 

5. First person, plural, future perfect, active. 

6. Third person, plural, past, potential, active. 

7. Third person, singular, past perfect, potential, passive. 

8. The present infinitive, passive. 

9. The present perfect infinitive, active. 
10. The past participle, passive. 



STEPS ENG. 



258 GRAMMAR 



178. USE OF SHALL AND WILL. 

The auxiliaries shall and will used in forming the future 
tense have somewhat different meanings. Which of these 
words should be used depends upon the meaning that the 
speaker wishes to express ; as, 

/ shall go. (Speaker expects to go.) 

/ will go. (Speaker determines to go.) 

You shall go. (Speaker determines that you shall go.) 

He will^. (Speaker expects him to go.) 

The following sentences convey different meanings ac- 
cording to whether shall or will is used. Try to explain 
the difference in meaning between each sentence as it 
stands and the same with the other auxiliary substituted : 

i. I shall (will) not see you. 

2. We will (shall) not come. 

3. He shall (will) not go alone. 

4. They shall (will) meet us at the station. 

5. You will (shall) be in Europe then. 

6. They shall (will) be punished. 

7. My friends shall (will) be present. 

8. The estate will (shall) be divided. 

9. The admission shall (will) be free. 

10. He says that the admission shall (will) be free. 

The uses of shall and will are summarized in the follow- 
ing : (Gr. 173, 174, Indie. Fut.) 

Simple Future with Idea of Future with Idea of 

Expectation. Determination. 

I {or we) shall go. I {or we) will go. 

You (he, they, etc) will go. You (he, they, etc.) shall go. 

Rule. To express simple futurity or expectation on the part of 
the speaker, use shall with the subjects I and we, and will with all 
other subjects. 

To express determination on the part of the speaker, use will with 
the subjects I and we, and use shall with all other subjects. 



THE VERB 259 

In questions shall is always used with the subjects / and we. 

With other subjects use the auxiliary that is expected in the reply. 

Thus, 

Shall / meet you to-morrow? 

Will you keep this pledge ? {I will.) 

Shall you be able to come to-morrow f (/ shall.) 

Should and would are in origin the past tenses of shall 
and willy and in corresponding uses follow the same rules. 
Should, however, has also a special meaning equivalent to 
oughty and is used in that sense with all subjects alike. 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Justify the use of shall, will, should, and would 

in the following sentences : t . 

1. I think it will rain soon. 

2. We shall be disappointed. 

3. We will do our duty. 

4. Shall I have permission to go? 

5. I should be pleased to assist you at any time. 

6. If I did need help, I would not ask for it. 

7. "You should see it in Fair week, sir," said Jackanapes. 

8. " And what sort of a figure shall I cut, at the court of King 
Pelias ! " 

9. " You will get a handsomer pair of sandals by and by," said 
the old woman. " Only let King Pelias get a glimpse of that bare 
foot, and you shall see him turn pale as ashes, I promise you." 

10. For whosoever will save his life shall lose it: and whosoever 
will lose his life for my sake shall find it. 

11. You may break, you may shatter 

The vase if you will ; 
But the scent of the roses 
Will hang round it still. 

12. I would study, I would know, I would admire forever. 

— Emerson. 

13. And so the active breath of life 

Should stir our dull and sluggard wills. 



260 GRAMMAR 

Ex. II. Fill the following blanks with shall, will, should, 
or would. 

i. I go or not? 



2. I never see him again ! Never! 

3. Alas, alas ! I , never see him again. 

4. I be obliged if you do me this favor. 

5. If you call, I accompany you. 

6. I think we have rain to-day. 

7. Where I meet you? 

8. I suffer if I do not do as I am requested. 

9. we be there in time ? 

10. Help me, or I drown. 

11. you be of age this year? 

12. you go this evening or to-morrow? 

13. we go with you to the station? 

14. I be pleased to hear from you. 

15. When we see you again? 

16. In spite of all I could do he not remain. 

17. The teacher said we remain. 

18. Every boy and girl read " Hiawatha." 

19. At first I didn't think you enjoy this visit. 

20. I think you have known better. 



179. HOW TO PARSE VERBS. 

A finite verb is parsed by stating : 

1. The class as to form, — regular or irregular, giving 
its principal parts if irregular. 

2. The class as to use, — transitive or intransitive, giv- 
ing its voice (active or passive) if it is transitive. 

3. The mode, — indicative, subjunctive, potential, or 
imperative. 

4. The tense. 

5. The subject, person, and number. 



THE VERB 26l 

An infinitive or a participle is parsed by stating : 

1. Its tense. 

2. Whether it is transitive or intransitive, active or passive. 

3. How it (or the phrase of which it is a part) is used. 

Models for Oral Parsing. 

As it lies in the earth, iron ore is in veins or pockets, walled 
about with rock. 

Lies is a verb ; the principal parts are lie, lay, lain, hence it is 
irregular ; it expresses an action that does not pass to a receiver, and 
is therefore intransitive; it asserts a fact, and therefore is in the 
indicative mode ; it denotes present time, and therefore is in the 
present tense. It is in the third person and singular number, to 
agree with its subject it. 

Abbreviated form. Is is an irregular, intransitive verb, indicative 
mode, present tense, third person, singular number, t© agree with its 
subject ore. 

Walled is a past participle, passive, from the verb wall. It is used 
as an adjective to modify veins or pockets. 

Written Parsing. 





beasts j \ to know \ friends. 


Nature f\ teaches 


1 their 


Ir. V. Inf. 


Tr. Pres. 


Act. Tr. 


Ind. Act. 


Pres. Assum. Pred. 


3. of beasts 


Sing. 


to agree 


with A 


'ature. 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Parse orally all the verbs in the selection on 
pages 166, 167. 



262 GRAMMAR 

Ex. II. Parse in writing all tJie verbs in the following, 
according to the model given : 

i. Knowledge wanes, but wisdom lingers. — Tennyson. 

2. Wealth may seek us, but wisdom must be sought. — Young, 

3. Act well your part ; there all the honor lies. 

4. We, by our sufferings, learn to prize our bliss. — Dry den. 

5. Suffer that you may be wise ; labor that you may have. 

6. If a man empty his purse into his head, no one can take it from 
him. — Franklin. 

7. Never put off till to-morrow what you can do to-day. 

8. The reason I beat the Austrians is, they did not know the value 
of five minutes. — Napoleon. 

9. No man has learned anything rightly, until he know that 
every day is Doomsday. — Emerson. 

10. Men but like visions are, time all doth claim ; 

He lives, who dies to win a lasting name. — .Drummond. 



180. REVIEW. 

Exercise. Tell which of the forms in parentheses is 
correct, and give the reason for your answer : 

1. I (saw, seen) my duty and I (done, did) it. 

2. The land was (overflown, overflowed) after the river had 
(raised, risen). 1 

3. He had (gone, went) home before the storm had (began, begun). 

4. The murderer was (hung, hanged) at daylight. 

5. Our fathers held that all men (were, are) created equal. 

6. I expected he (will, would) come. 

7. It was his intention (to introduce, to have introduced) the bill. 

8. " (Can, May) I use your knife a moment ? " asked she. 

9. " You (may, can) have it longer, if you wish," answered he. 

10. (Will, Shall) I put some coal on the fire ? 

11. I vow I (shall, will) never go there again. 

12. If I (should, would) say so, I (should, would) be guilty of 
falsehood. 

13. " Eight bells " (was, were) struck. 



THE VERB 263 

14. Each day and each hour (brings, bring) (their, its) own trials. 

15. If he (were, was) here he could see for (his self, himself). 

16. If my friend (was, were) here I (should, would) be happier. 

17. Neither you nor I (am, are) to blame. 

18. Thou who (are, art) the author of life, (can, canst) restore it. 

19. Every one of you (have, has) the wrong answer. 

20. Money, as well as provisions, (was, were) needed. 

21. He (lived, has lived) there several years before he died. 

22. The prisoner says that he (will, shall) try (and, to) keep his 
promise. 

23. And if I (was, were) a fairy, what (should, would) I give to 
quiet thine earnest prayer ? 



Test Questions, i. Into what two great classes are verbs divi- 
ded ? 2. Define an intransitive verb. 3. Choose a verb that may be 
either transitive or intransitive, and illustrate both uses. 4. Select 
three verbs used only intransitively. 5. Why are auxiliaries necessary? 
6. Make a list of auxiliary verbs. 7. What kind of verbs can not be 
used in the passive voice? 8. Why? 9. How is the passive voice 
formed ? 10. In changing a sentence from the active to the passive 
form what does the object complement become? 11. The indirect 
object? 12. The factitive complement ? 13. What properties of the 
verb are shown by inflection ? Illustrate. 

14. What is mode? 15. What mode is formed by the use of 
auxiliaries ? 16. Give the mode auxiliaries. 17. What are the 
primary tenses of the verb ? 18. The secondary tenses ? 19. Mention 
the tense auxiliaries. 20. Which auxiliary is used with the subjects 
/and we to express simple futurity? 21. Which to express determi- 
nation? 22. When is the j-form of the verb used? 23. Upon what 
does the use of the j-form of the verb depend ? 24. When may a 
singular noun or pronoun be used as the subject of were? 25. Why 
are some verbs said to be irregular ? 

26. What is meant by the conjugation of a verb ? 27. By the synop- 
sis of a verb ? 28. How are the tenses of the passive voice formed ? 
29. How does the progressive form of the verb differ in meaning 
from the ordinary form ? 30. What is a redundant verb ? 31. A de- 
fective verb? 32. An impersonal verb ? 33. What is the difference 
in meaning between May I go ? and Can I go ? 34. When is the 
verb set used intransitively? Illustrate. 35. What is the rule for 
the use of shall and will? 



264 



GRAMMAR 



181. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

The following list contains most of the irregular verbs in 
the language. The forms in italics are now but little used. 
An r means that the regular form may also be used ; 
and when the R is in full-face type it indicates that the 
regular form is preferable. The present participle is here 
omitted, as it is always formed by adding ing to the 
present infinitive (Gr. 165, p. 238.) 



Present. 


Past. 


Past P. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past P. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Burn 


burnt, R. 


burnt, R. 


Am 


was 


been 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Awake 


awoke, r. 


awaked 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Bake 


baked 


( baked 
< baken 
( borne 
1 born 1 


Catch 


caught, r 


. caught, r. 


Bear,/<?r. 


■ bore, dare 


Chide 
Choose 


chid 
chose 


( chidden 
I chid 
chosen 


Beat 


beat 


( beaten 
( beat 


Cleave 2 

{to split) 


I cleft 


{ cleft, R. 
1 cloven 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Bend 


bent, r. 


bent, r. 


Clothe 


clad, R. 


clad, R. 


Bereave 


bereft, R. 


bereft, r. 


Come, be 


- came 


come 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Bet 


bet, R. 


bet, r. 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Bid 


bade, bid 


bidden, bid 


Crow 


crew, R. 


crowed 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Curse 


curst, R. 


curst, R. 


Bite 


bit, 


bitten, bit 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Dare 3 


durst, R. 


dared 


Blend 


blent, R. 


blent, R. 


Deal 


dealt 


dealt 


Bless 


blest, R. 


blest, R. 


Dig 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Dive 


dove, R. 


dived 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Do 


did 


done 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Dream 


dreamt, R 


. dreamt, R. 


Build 


built, R. 


built, R. 


Dress 


drest, R. 


drest, R. 



1 Born is passive only, in sense of 
brought forth. 



2 Cleave, to adhere, is regular. 

3 Dare, to challenge, is regular. 







THE 


VERB 




26 


Present. 


Past. 


Past P. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past P. 


Drink 


drank 


{ drunk 
t drank 


Lay laid 
Lead, mis- led 


laid 
led 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Lean 


leant, R. 


leant, R. 


Dwell 


dwelt, r. 


dwelt, r. 


Leap 


leapt, R. 


leapt, R. 


Eat 


ate, eat 


eaten 


Learn 


learnt, R. 


learnt, R. 


Fall, be- 


fell 


fallen 


Leave 


left 


left 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Let 


let 


let 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


~L\e(recline) lay 


lain 


Find 


found 


found 


Light 


lit, R. 


lit, R. 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Make 


made 


made 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Meet 


met 


met 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Mow 


mowed 


mown, r. 


Get, for- 


got 


got, gotten 


Pay, re- 


paid 


paid 


Gild 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


Pen 


pent, R. 


pent, R. 


Gird 


girt, R. 


girt, R. 


Put 


put 


put 


Give, for- 


gave 


given 


Quit 


quit, R. 


quit, R. 


Go, under 


- went 


gone 


Rap 


rapt, R. 


rapt, R. 


Grave 1 


graved 


graven 


Read 


read 


read 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Rid 


rid, r. 


rid, r: 


Hang 2 


hung 


hung 


Ride 


rode, rid 


ridden 


Have 


had 


had 


Ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Heave 


hove, R. 


( hove, R. 
( hoven 


Rive 
Run 


rived 
ran, run 


riven, r. 
run 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, R. 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, R. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Say 


said 


said 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


See 


saw 


seen 


Hold, be- 


held 


(held 
i holden 


Seek 
Seethe 


sought 
sod, R. 


sought 
sodden, R, 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Kneel 


knelt, R. 


knelt, R. 


Set 


set 


set 


Knit 


knit, R. 


knit, R. 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Know 


knew 


known 


Shape 


shaped 


shapen, R, 


Lade 


laded 


laden, r. 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven, R. 



1 Engrave is regular. 



2 Hang, to take life, is regular. 



266 




GRAMMAR 






Present. 


Past. 


Past P. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past P. 


Shear 


shore, R. 


shorn, R. 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Shine 


shone, R. 


shone, R. 


Strew 


strewed 


strewn, r. 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Stride 


( strode 
i strid 


stridden 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


strid 


Show 


showed 


shown, R. 


Strike 


struck 


( struck 
' stricken 


Shred 


shred, R. 


shred, r. 


Shrink 


j shrank ) 
i shrunk S 


shrunk 


String 
Strive 


strung 
strove 


strung 
striven 


Shrive 


shrove, R. 


shriven, R. 


Strow 


strowed 


strown, r. 


Shut 
Sing 


shut shut 
sang, sung sung 


Swear 


( swore \ 
\ sware S 


sworn 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


: sunk 


Sweat 


sweat, R. 


sweat, r. 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen, R. 


Sleep 
Slide 


slept 
slid 


slept 
( slidden 
(slid 


Swim 
Swing 


\ swam I 
I swum ' j 
swung 


swum 
swung 


Sling 


( slung ) 
( slang ) 


slung 


Take 
Teach 


took 
taught 


taken 
taught 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Tear 


tore, tare 


torn 


Slit 


slit 


slit 


Tell 


told 


told 


Smell 


smelt, R. 


smelt, R. 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Thrive 


throve, R. 


thriven, R. 


Sow 


sowed 


sown, r. 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Speak 


spoke 


spoken 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Speed 


sped, r. 


sped, R. 


Tread 


( trod 
( trode 


trodden 


Spell 


spelt, R. 


spelt, R. 


trod 


Spend 


spent 


spent 


Wake 


woke, R. 


woke, R. 


Spill 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R. 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen, R. 


Spin 


spun, span 


i spun 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Spit 


spit, spat 


spit 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Split 


split 


split 


Wed 


wedded 


wed, R. 


Spoil 


spoilt, R. 


spoilt, R. 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Wet 


wet, r. 


wet, r. 


Spring 


( sprang ) 
I sprung ) 


sprung 


Win 
Wind 


won 
wound, r. 


won 
wound 


Stand 


stood 


stood 


Work 


wrought, K 


\. wrought, R. 


Stave 


stove, R. 


stove, R. 


Wrap 


wrapt, R. 


wrapt, R. 


Stay 


staid, R. 


staid, R. 


Wring 


wrung 


wrung 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Write 


wrote 


written 



THE ADJECTIVE 267 

182. THE ADJECTIVE. 

An adjective is a word used to modify the meaning of a 
noun or pronoun (Gr. 20 and 21, pp. 33, 34). This modi- 
fication may be made in two ways : 

1. It may be made by pointing out or describing some 
property or quality in the person or thing named by the 
substantive ; as, 

Unselfish boys become noble men. 

A pleasant word on a rainy day is a ray of golden su?ishine. 

The best love is a helping hand. 

The adjective unselfish tells what kind or quality of boys, noble 
tells what kind of men, golden tells the quality of sunshine. 

Definition. An adjective used to describe or tell the kind or 
quality of the person or thing named is called a Descriptive Adjec- 
tive. 

The great majority of adjectives are descriptive. They include, 
as a small part of their number, Proper Adjectives, or those derived 
from proper names ; as, The American flag; The Spanish fleet. 

2. An adjective may modify the meaning of a substan- 
tive by denning or pointing out that which is named ; as, 
this boy, that word; or by limiting or indicating the 
number or quantity of that which is named ; as, two boys, 
the first word, much sunshine, enough rain. 

Definition. An adjective that defines or limits a noun without 
describing is called a Definitive Adjective. 1 

As compared with adjectives that describe, there are very few 
definitive adjectives. The principal ones are : 



one 


third 


, etc. 


each 


this 


two, etc. 


a 




every 


that 


first 


an 




either 


these 


second 


the 




neither 


those 



1 Sometimes called a Limiting Adjective. 



268 GRAMMAR 

former other such no more 

latter any both many most 

last one same few enough 

some all another much 

Which and what when used as adjectives, either in asking questions 
(sometimes called Interrogative Adjectives) or in exclamations, are 
definitives ; as, 

Which boy played truant ? 

What boy would play truant ? 

What shadows we are, what shadows we pursue / — Burke. 

Note. Which asks for one of a number of persons or things. 

What is applied to persons or things indefinitely. 

Which (whichever) and what (whatever) sometimes introduce a 
noun clause and modify like an adjective. In such use also they are 
definitives; as, 

/ know which boy played truant. 

Give me whatever information you have. 

This, these, that, those, and yonder are definitives used to point out 
objects and are called Demonstrative Adjectives ; as, 

This 1 apple is sweet. 1 Those 1 grapes are sour. 1 

The adjectives a, an, and the are called Articles. 

A (an) is the Indefinite Article because it denotes any one of a num- 
ber of persons or things. 

The is the Definite Article because it points out some particular 
person or thing. 

1 An adjective may exert its influence over a noun in two ways: 
First, it may stand near the word it modifies, either before or after, influencing 
it directly ; as, 

Gentle words were spoke?t. 

His words, gentle and helpful, were often heard wherever trouble was. 
Second, it may complete an assertion, following a copulative verb (Gr. 67, 
p. 90) . In this use it modifies the subject, exerting its influence indirectly ; as, 
His words were gentle and helpful. 
Gentle and helpful was he. 
To help others is pleasant. 
Adjectives used in the second way are sometimes called Predicate Adjectives. 



THE ADJECTIVE 269 

Exercise. 

Point out and classify the adjectives in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 

2. Every man is odd. 

3. Then the sea I found calm as a cradled child in dreamless 
slumber bound. < 

4. Much wit he had, but little wisdom. 

5. Loss of sincerity is loss of vital power. 

6. See yonder maker of the dead man's bed. 

7. Great sins make great sufferers. 

8. Each man is the servant of all men, and all men of each. 

9. Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May. 

10. To some men are given ten talents. 

11. The noblest mind the best contentment has. 

12. He did not know which profession to choose. • 

13. The snowy lands are springing, in clover green and soft. 

14. Far in a wild, unknown to public view, 
From youth to age a reverend hermit grew. 

15. Delightful is this loneliness. 

16. Constant quiet fills my peaceful breast 
With unmixed joy, uninterrupted rest. 

17. Certain winds will make men's temper bad. 

18. Write it on your heart that every day is the best day in the year. 

19. Considerable genius is shown in a few of his short poems. 

20. The former books were printed in England in the seventeenth 
century ; the latter in America in the twentieth. 



183. COMPARISON. 

Notice the adjectives in the following sentences : 

1 . George is tall, Frank is taller, but Luther is the tallest of the 
three. 

2. Jane is studious, Mary is more studious, but Ruth is the most 
studious girl in school. 



270 GRAMMAR 

3. Apples are good, oranges are better, and peaches best of all. 

What quality of the three boys is compared by the adjectives in 
the first sentence? How are the different degrees of this quality de- 
noted ? Notice that Frank possesses the quality of tallness in a greater 
degree than George. Which boy possesses it in the greatest degree? 
How are these different degrees shown? How is comparison shown 
by the adjectives in the second sentence ? In the third sentence? 

We see, then, that an adjective has the power to make 
us know that objects possess a quality in different degrees. 
This is done either by an inflection (pp. 177, 178) or by the 
use of an additional word ,• and is called Comparison. 

Definition. Comparison of adjectives is the power by which 
they make known that objects possess a quality in different degrees. 

Three degrees of comparison may be made known by the adjec- 
tive, and to the forms making known these three degrees are given 
the names Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

The Positive Form is the ordinary form of the adjective, and merely 
indicates the presence of the quality; as, tall, studious, good, etc. 

The Comparative Form indicates that one of two objects contains 
more of the given quality than the other ; as, taller, more studious, 
better {than another). 

The Superlative Form indicates that one of three or more objects 
contains more of a given quality than any one of the others; as, 
tallest, ?nost studious, best (of all). 

Adjectives are compared in three ways : 

1. Adjectives of one syllable and many adjectives of two syllables 1 
are compared by adding -er to form the comparative and -est to form 
the superlative ; as, tall, taller, tallest; noble, nobler, noblest j happy, 
happier, happiest. 

2. Some adjectives of two syllables 1 and all longer adjectives are 
compared by using more to form the comparative and most to form 

1 In the case of a regular adjective of two syllables sound ordinarily determines 
whether to use the forms in -er and -est or to place more and most before the 
positive form. Use whichever seems more euphonious. 



THE ADJECTIVE 



271 



the superlative ; as, 7nore pleasant, most pleasant; more studious, most 
studious. 

In Descending Comparison the comparative is formed by using 
less, and the superlative by using least, before the positive ; as, less 
happy, least happy. 

3. Some adjectives are compared irregularly ; as, good, better, best; 
bad, worse, worst. 



184. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 

Irregular and partly irregular adjectives, few in number 
but of very frequent use, are thus compared : 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative, 


bad \ 






in 


worse 


worst 


evil ) 







far 

fore 

good 
well 
hind 

in {infrequent as \ 
adjective) S 

late 

little 

many 

much 

nigh 

old 

out {infrequent as 
adjective) 

top 

up {infrequent as \ 
adjective) S 



farther 
further 

former 

better 

hinder 

inner 

later 

latter 

less 

more 

more 

nether 

nigher 

older 
elder 
outer 
utter 

upper 



farthest , 
furthest 
foremost 
first 

best 

hindmost 

inmost 

innermost 

latest 

last 

least 

most 

most 

nethermost 
( nighest 
i next 
( oldest 
1 eldest 

outmost, outermost 

utmost, uttermost 

topmost 

upmost 

uppermost 



272 GRAMMAR 

185. THE ADJECTIVE: IMPORTANT FACTS. 

The adjective is important as involving : 

I. Punctuation. 

i. " Two honest young men were chosen." In this sentence young 
tells the kind of men, honest tells the kind of young men, and two tells 
the number of honest young men. Hence these adjectives are of 
unequal rank, and are therefore not separated by the comma (Comp. 
no, note, p. 157). 

2. "A tall, straight, and dignified man entered." In this sentence 
tall, straight, and dignified modify man independently : the man is 
tall and straight and dignified; hence these adjectives are of the same 
(equal) rank, and are therefore separated by the comma. 

II. The Use of Other in Comparison. 

1. In making comparisons when the adjective used. is in the posi- 
tive or the comparative degree, neither of the terms compared must 
include the other. Thus, 

1. John was as active as any of his companions. 

2. John was more active than any of his companions. 

3. Iron is harder than lead. 

In these sentences notice that John is not included in any of his 
co?nfianions j and that iro7i is not a kind of lead. In such sentences 
the word other should never be used. 

2. Other should be inserted in making comparisons with adjectives 
in the positive or comparative degree when its presence is necessary 
to prevent one of the terms compared from including the other. Thus, 

1. No other metal is so useful as iron. 

2. Iron is more useful than any other metal. 

3. John is taller than any other boy in his class. 

In these sentences other is necessary because iron is a metal, and 
John is a boy in his class. 

3. Since the superlative denotes an object possessing a quality in 
the highest or lowest degree of all that are considered, the term com- 
pared must be included in the term with which it is compared ; and 
as a rule, therefore, other is not used with this degree. Thus, 

Iron is the most useful of all metals. 



THE ADJECTIVE 273 

III. The Comparison of Adjectives Whose Meaning Does 
Not Admit of Increase or Diminution. 

Because of their meaning some adjectives do not admit of com- 
parison ; for example, wooden, horizontal, true, perfect. 

It is of course incorrect to compare such adjectives. Say, " This 
line is 7nore nearly horizontal than that," etc., when wishing to make 
a comparison between two objects approaching perfection. 

IV. The Correct Use of A, An, and The. 

1. A or an is used to limit a noun to one thing of a class — to any 
one ; as, A man = any one man. An earl — any one earl. 

2. A or an is not used to limit a noun denoting the whole of a 
class ; as, Man (not a man) is mortal. He received the title of earl 
(not an earl). 

3. A, when used before few, changes the meaning from not many 
to soi7ie. A, when used before little, changes the meaning from not 
much to some. Thus, few men =not 7?tany men; a few men = some 
men. Little cause = not 7nuch cause ; a little cause = some cause. 

4. The is used : 

(a.) To refer to some particular thing or things already known or 
to be described ; as, The sun rises. The house that 77iy brother built 
was destroyed. 

(b.) Before a noun, in the singular, to particularize the class with- 
out designating any individual ; as, The horse is a useful a7ii7nal. 
The oak is valuable. 

5. The article is omitted before names used in such general or 
unlimited sense as not to require it ; as, Truth (not The truth) is 
77iighty. Astronomy (not The astrono77iy) is a difficult scie7ice. He 
7nade so7/ie sort ^excuse (not an excuse). One third of 6 is 2 (not 
the 07ie thi7^d of 6). He was appoi7ited chairman (not the chair7na7i). 
He has pneumonia (not the p7ieu77io7iia). 

6. When adjectives of equal rank refer to the same object the 
article is used only with the first ; as, I have a red, white, a7id blue flag 
(one flag). But, 

When adjectives of equal rank refer to different objects the article 
is repeated with each adjective ; as, / have a red, a white, and a blue 
flag (three flags). 

7. When several connected nouns stand for the same object the 
article is used only with the first ; as, Webster the orator a7id states- 
7nan (one person). But, 



STEPS ENG. 



274 GRAMMAR 

When several connected nouns stand for different objects the 
article is repeated with each noun, if necessary to avoid ambiguity; 
as, Webster, the orator, and the governor were in the first carriage 
(two persons). / have just sold a house and a lot (separate property) ; 
but, The men, women, and children walked over the bi'idge (neither 
obscure nor ambiguous). 

8. When several connected nouns stand for different objects, if the 
first takes the article it must be repeated when the same form of the 
article is not applicable to all ; as, A cow, an ox, and a horse (not A 
cow, ox, and horse). 

V. The Agreement with the Noun. 

i. Adjectives denoting one agree with nouns in the singular ; as, 
One eye; That basis j This memorandu?n. Adjectives denoting more 
than one agree with nouns in the plural ; as, Two eyes; Those bases; 
These memoranda. 

2. If an adjective is necessarily plural, the noun to agree with it 
must be plural ; as, Five tons {not five ton) ; Five pounds (not five 
pound). 

Note. Brace, dozen, score, yoke, hundred, thousand, etc., have the 
same form in both numbers when used with numerals. 



VI. The Use of Either and Neither. 

i. Either and neither are used to designate one of two objects 
only. When more than two objects are referred to, use any, any one, 
none, no one; as, Neither of these (two) houses is for sale. You 7nay 
have any one of those (three or more) which you wish. 

2. To express reciprocal relation the terms each other and one an- 
other are often used ; as, Those two people help each other ; Those 
three (or more) persoiis help one another. 

{Each other is used of two only ; one another is used of more than 
two.) 

VII. Errors in Comparison and Arrangement. 

i. Avoid double comparisons; as, 7nore unkinder; most un- 
kindest. 

2. Place adjectives where there can be no doubt as to what they 
are intended to modify; as, A dish of fried bacon (not A fried dish 
of bacon). 



THE ADJECTIVE 275 

186. REVIEW. 

Ex. I. Rewrite the following, arranging the adjectives in 
better order when possible, and punctuate : 

I like little pretty flowers. 

2. He sold a black blind old horse. 

3. An energetic brave restless people. 

4. He was a young agreeable man. 

5. That noble brave patriotic leader. 

6. Mary found a silk lady's black glove. 
That poor industrious old blind man. 
A Newfoundland handsome large dog. 
That was a mournful sad tale. 
We erected a marble costly new fountain. 

Ex. II. Correct the errors, giving reasons: 

1. Texas is larger than any state in the Union. 2. Texas is the 
largest of all other states in the Union. 3. No state in the Union is 
so large as Texas. 

4. Of all the other American cities, New York is the largest. 

5. He was the wisest of all his brothers 

6. Grant was greater than any American general. 7. No 
American general was so great as General Grant. 8. Grant was the 
most distinguished of any of his generals. 9. Grant was more dis- 
tinguished than any of his other generals. 

10. Washington is more beloved than any man that ever lived. 

Ex. III. Insert or omit the, an, or a, giving reasons : 

1. What kind of a house do you want? 

2. There are a few pleasant days in March, because it is so stormy. 

3. Few men live to be a hundred years old, but not many. 

4. Where did you get that kind of a hat? 

5. This girl has an active and an energetic mind. 

6. He carried a large and small basket. 

7. The secretary and treasurer were absent. 

8. The secretary and the treasurer was absent. 

9. He saved a little from the fire, as it broke out in the night. 



276 GRAMMAR 

Ex. IV. Use this, these, that, and those property in the 
following, giving reason for each selection : 

1. I like kind of apples. 

2. I have not seen him twenty years. 

3. I dislike sort of berries. 

4. " Thank you for molasses." 

5. Why should we be annoyed by sort of men? 

6. memoranda are correct. 

7. " I have no use for kind of people." 

8. phenomenon, the northern lights, is very beautiful. 

9. I never admired sort of hats. 



Ex. V. Correct the errors in the following, and give 
reasons : 

1. Churchill received the title of a duke. 

2. Both the boy and girl came to see us. 

3. Neither the man nor woman was seen. 

4. Distinguish between the nominative and objective. 

5. I bought a Webster's and Worcester's dictionary. 

6. I exchanged two yokes of oxen for five barrel of wine. 

7. Neither of the three men could swim. 1 

8. Of those four books, I don't want either. 

9. The boy and girl help one another. 

' 10. Those three boys resemble each other. 

11. It was a blue soft beautiful sky. 

12. They sang the three last verses of the 23d Psalm. 

13. I like the sweet and sour grapes. 

14. The woman is the equal of man. 

15. I never saw a sight so beautiful as this one. 

16. I never saw any one so well pleased as he. 

17. It is a better poem than ever was written. 

18. Sing the third and fifth verse, please. 

19. Sing the third and the fifth verses, please. 

20. What kind of a phrase is in town ? 

21. Those two boys are very kind to one another. 

22. A noun and pronoun are alike in office. 

23. He was appointed the secretary. 



THE ADJECTIVE 277 

24. An eel is a sort of a fish. 

25. I know the pond is nine foot deep, for I measured it with a 
ten-feet pole. 

26. Draw the lines more perpendicular. 

27. I expected some kind of a reward for having got the most 
correct answer to the problem. 

28. Some of the boys are helping each other. 



187. HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES. 

To parse an adjective give : 

1. Its class, — descriptive or definitive. 

2. Its degree of comparison, if compared. 

3. Its use, — what it modifies. 

Model for Oral and Written Parsing. 
That man is never alone who has noble thoughts. 

That points out which man without describing ; it is therefore a 
definitive adjective, and modifies man. 

Alone describes the condition (quality) of the man ; it is therefore 
a descriptive adjective ; it is used to complete the predicate and to 
modify the noun man, to which it relates. 

Noble describes the quality of thoughts ; it is therefore a descrip- 
tive adjective ; it is in the positive degree, and is used to modify the 
noun thoughts. 

Abbreviated Form : Noble is a descriptive adjective, positive 
degree, and is used to modify the noun thoughts. 

I\ is \ alone 



That I I never 

\who j\has I thoughts ' 

I noble 



Def. Adj. Des. Adj., Pos. Des. Adj., Pred. 
modifies modifies modifies man 

man thoughts 



278 GRAMMAR 



Exercise. 

Parse the adjectives in the following : 

But if one principal character of Italian landscape is melancholy 
another is elevation. We have no simple rusticity of scene, no cow- 
slip and buttercup humility of seclusion. Tall mulberry trees, with 
festoons of the luxuriant vine, purple with ponderous clusters, trailed 
and trellised between and over them, shade the wide fields of stately 
Indian corn. ... In a country of this pomp of natural glory, tempered 
with melancholy memory of departed pride, what are we to wish for, 
what are we naturally to expect, in the character of her most humble 
of edifices ; those which are most connected with present life, least 
with the past? — John Ruskin in " The Poetry of Architecture" 



188. THE ADVERB. 

You have already learned that adverbs modify the mean- 
ing of verbs, adjectives, or adverbs ; as, 

1 . He walked rapidly . 

2. The rose is very beautiful. 

3. He answered wry quietly. 

Which words in the following sentences both modify verbs and 
connect clauses ? 

1. This is the place where C<zsar crossed the Rubicon. 

2. We ca?ne when we heard you were here. 

3. You ittust start to school before the bell rings. 

Adverbs have two different uses. They may merely 
modify, or they may both modify and connect. These 
classes are known respectively as Simple Adverbs and Con- 
junctive Adverbs. 

The principal Conjunctive Adverbs are as, after, before, when, 
since (meaning time), till, until, where, while, and why. 



THE ADVERB 279 

Note. When, where, why, and how when used to ask questions 
are called Interrogative Adverbs ; as, 

When did the general arrive ? 
Where is Bunker Hill ? 

In meaning, adverbs are of several kinds : 

1. Adverbs of Time. 

He is going soon. 

/ will see you by and by. 

Go now. 

Others arej^/, lately, ever, then, hereafter, sometimes, and always, 

2. Adverbs of Place. 

John found it there. 
Flames fly upward. 

Others are here, hither, thither, hence, and thence. 

3. Adverbs of Manner. 

He recited well. 

She is better dressed than her sisters. 

He answered thus. 

Others are quickly, pleasantly, worse, ill, and slowly. 

4. Adverbs of Degree. 

I am almost frozen. 
He is nearly do?ie. 
She is very studious. 

Others are little, quite, all, wholly, so, partly, and enough. 

Note. A few adverbs modify a whole sentence, and are some- 
times called Modal Adverbs ; as, 

Perhaps I shall go to-?norrow evening. 

Others are surely, probably, and possibly. 

Note. Yes and no, with like words, are often called adverbs of 
assertion. If they are adverbs at all they are modal in nature. Really, 
however, they are sentence equivalents; for example : "Will you go 
with me?" "Ves." Here Yes is the equivalent of "I will go with 
you." 



280 GRAMMAR 

Note. Adverbs often modify an adjective or an adverbial phrase, 
instead of a single word; as, He went quite to the top. He sailed 
nearly around the world. 

Note. Two or more words taken together may convey a single 
adverbial idea. In this case they are called Phrase Adverbs; as, 
Here and there, ever and anon, again and again, etc. 



189. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs, like adjectives, admit of comparison. They 
are compared in three different ways : 

i. Some adverbs are compared by adding -er and -est to the simple 
form ; as, 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


fast 


faster 


fastest 


rough 


rougher 


roughest 


slow 


slower 


slowest 


soon 


sooner 


soonest 


early 


earlier 


earliest 



Note. Poetry often demands the use of the comparative and the 
superlative in -er and -est when they would not be used in prose. 

2. Adverbs ending in -ly are usually compared by prefixing more 
and most, or less and least, to the simple forms ; as, 



)SITIVE. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


wisely 


more wisely 


most wisely 


firmly 


less firmly 


least firmly 


earnestly 


more earnestly 


most earnestly 



Some adverbs are compared irregularly ; as, 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

badly ) 

J > worse worst 

far farther farthest 

forth further furthest 

little less least 



THE ADVERB 28 1 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


< Superlative. 


much 


more 


most 


well 


better 


best 



Note. The forms given above, with the exception of badly and 
forth, are also used as adjectives. 



190. HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS. 

To parse an adverb give : 

1. Its class, — simple, conjunctive, interrogative, modal. 

2. If simple, its kind. 

3. Its degree of comparison, if compared. 

4. Its use — the word, phrase, or sentence whose mean- 
ing it modifies. 

Examples of Parsing. 

He walked rapidly. 

Rapidly is a simple adverb of manner. It is in the positive degree, 
and modifies walked. 

This is the place where Cozsar crossed the Rubicon. 

Where is a conjunctive adverb; it modifies crossed and connects 
the clause Caesar crossed the Rubicon with place. 

He answered very quietly. 

Very is a simple adverb of degree ; it modifies quietly. 

Why did Cozsar cross the Rubicon ? 

Why is an interrogative adverb, and modifies did cross. 

Exercise. 

Analyze the following sentences and parse the adverbs : 

1. He was already at the door, but he dared not go out. 

2. Raleigh had spent so much money already that he was forced 
to give up the attempt to plant a colony in America. 



282 



GRAMMAR 



3. To live with them is far less sweet 

Than to remember thee. 

4. To live long it is necessary to live slowly. 

5. When did Washington take command of the Continental army? 

6. When a fool makes up his mind, the market has gone by. 

7. Where liberty dwells, there is my country. 

8. How are the mighty fallen ! 

9. The noblest principle in education is to teach how to live for 
one's country. — Balch. 

10. Nothing is politically right that is morally wrong. — O'Connor. 

11. The family is practically a little state in itself. 

12. Let us have faith that right makes might ; and in that faith let 
us dare to do our duty as we understand it. — Lincoln. 

13. Mont Blanc is the monarch of mountains, 
They crowned him long ago 

On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds, 
With a diadem of snow. — Byron. 

14. This little rill, that from the springs 
Of yonder grove its current brings, 
Plays on the slope awhile, and then 
Goes prattling into groves again, 
Oft to its warbling waters drew 

My little feet, when life was new. — Bryant. 



191. SIMILAR AbjECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 

Many words are used both as adjectives and as adverbs 
without a change of form. Their use determines the part 
of speech to which they belong. 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Distinguisli the adverbs and the adjectives in the 

following sejttences : 

1. Is he the best scholar who behaves the best? 

2. Is he well when he is able to do the work well? 



THE ADVERB 283 

3. Drink deep or taste not the Pierian spring. 

4. A company of soldiers marched six files deep. 

5. He is entirely wrong in holding out so long. 

6. He was sick, nigh unto death. 

7. The tumult shows the battle nigh. 

8. There's some ill planet reigns. 

9. How ill this taper burns! 

10. All left the world much as they found it. 

11. Much learning doth make thee mad. 

Ex. II. How does the first sentence in each of the fol- 
lowing pairs differ in meaning from tJie second? 

The river ran smooth. 

The engine ran smoothly. 
j The lady looked cold as she passed by. 
I The lady looked coldly at me as she passed, 
r The moon looks calm and peaceful. 
3- < The moon looks down calmly and peacefully upon the battle- 
' field. 

( The soldiers are careful with their guns. 
I They load their guns carefully. 

Ex. III. Choose the proper adjective or adverb and give 
reason for your choice : 

1. The sky looks (beautiful, beautifully). 

2. You behaved very (proper, properly). 

3. The man acted (wild, wildly). 

4. The ship sailed (smooth, smoothly). 

5. The dead Indian looked (fierce, fiercely). 

6. The machinery works (good, well). 

7. The bird sang (sweet, sweetly). 

8. The fire burns (bright, brightly). 

9. (Sure, surely) he is a fine gentleman. 

10. The man writes (plain, plainly). 

11. The tone of his language was (decided, decidedly) harsh. 

12. She is a (remarkable, remarkably) beautiful person. 

13. He is (remarkable, remarkably) bright. 

14. I stayed at home yesterday because I felt (bad, badly). 



284 GRAMMAR 



192. THE PREPOSITION. 

It has been shown (Gr. 25, pp. 39-41) that a preposition 
connects a substantive to some other word, and indicates a 
relation between them. 

The preposition, although having little meaning in itself, 
is a very useful word in the sentence, as by it both variety 
and precision of statement may be obtained. 

To obtain this precision of statement care must be taken 
to use the preposition that expresses the exact shade of 
meaning desired. This skill in the use of prepositions is 
acquired by practice. Certain words, however, having the 
prefixes ab (meaning from), ad (meaning to or for), and 
com (meaning with), are followed by prepositions having 
the meaning of the prefixes ; for example : 

ab : abduct from ; absent from ; absorb from ; abstain from ; ab- 
stract from. 

ad: adapt to or for ; addicted to ; address to ; adhere to ; adjacent 
to. 

com : combat with ; combine with ; communicate with ; compare 
with ; comply with. 

Note. The final letter of each of these prefixes sometimes 
changes in order to harmonize with the next letter in the word in 
which it is used : 

ab : a^-duct from ; #-vert from. 

ad: ad-xmt to ; <2-spire to ; <^/-lude to ; an-nex to ; an-nounce to. 
com : corn-pound with ; con-tract with ; ^/-laborate with ; co-equal 
with. 

As a rule, then, after words having these prefixes use a 
preposition having the same meaning as the prefix. 

Many words, however, require a special preposition after 
them, and in a few instances the same word has widely 



THE PREPOSITION 



285 



differing meanings when followed by different prepositions. 
Some of these words are noted in the following list : 



Abhorrence for. 
Accord with. 
Acquit of. 

Adapted to (by plan). 
Adapted for (by nature). 
Agree with (a person). 
Agree to (a statement). 
Confer on (to give to). 
Confer with (to talk with). 
Confide in (to trust in). 
Confide to (to intrust to). 
Congenial to. 
Congratulate on or upon. 
Convenient to (a person 

place). 
Convenient/^ (a purpose). 
Correspond with (a person). 



or 



Correspond to (a thing). 
Deliver from, out of of tc (a 

person). 
Deliver at (a place). 
Differ from (in likeness). 
Differ with (in opinion). 
Involve in. 
Part from (a person). 
Part with (a thing). 
Profit by. 
Prohibit from. 
Reconcile to (a person). 
Reconcile with (a statement). 
Taste of(ioo&). 
Taste for (art, or something 

desired). 
Wait on, tipon, for, at. 



Additional Rules. Use in, on, at, and by as a rule to show rest; 
as, He stays in the house; on the porch; at the seaside; by the 
spring. 

Use to, into, unto, toward, and from as a rule to show motion 
together with direction; as, He was going to the store; into the 
house. 

Use between when speaking of two ; among when speaking of more 
than two ; as, He divided the apple between the two boys, and the 
orajige among the three girls. 

Use by to indicate the actor, and with to indicate the instrument ; 
as, The boy was hit with a stone by his companioii. 

Use in when speaking of large cities, at when speaking of villages 
and hotels. 

Avoid the use of of in such phrases as the capture of the colonel, 
the fear of wild animals, the love of God, etc. What two meanings 
may each of these phrases have ? Such ambiguity may be avoided by 
the use of the possessive case or the use of a verb or participle ; as, 
God's love; the fear shown by wild animals; the soldier whom the 
colonel captured. 

Avoid the use of onto and off of Although frequently heard, 



286 GRAMMAR 

these expressions are not warranted. Say " He got off the car and 
stepped on a slowly moving train." Say " I took it fro?n him," not 
" I took it off of him." 

In Parsing Prepositions we need only to state that the 
word is a preposition, and to point out the words between 
which it shows relation. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Use correctly in sentences the various prepositions 
mentioned on the preceding page. 

Ex. II. Fill the blanks with appropriate prepositions : 

i. He poured ink the jug. 

2. The wheat was cut a reaper. 

3. My book is different yours. 

4. He divided his property his four sons. 

5. She divided her estate her two daughters. 

6. He died thirst. 

7. I put the knife my pocket. 

8. The man died smallpox. 

9. I differ you on that question. 

10. You may rely what I say, and confide his 

honesty. 

11. I am tall in comparison you. 

12. We remained the South a little village. 

13. We visited . London a week. 

14. The boy was admitted school. 

15. He three others was commended. 

16. He was absent . school. 

Ex. III. How does the first sentence of each of the 
following pairs differ in meaning from the second ? 

The boys jumped into the water. 

The boys jumped in the water. 
( The children were running in the hall, 
t The children were running into the hall. 



THE CONJUNCTION 287 



j They divided the money among them. 
1 They divided the money between them, 
j Two boys beside the man. 
t Two boys besides the man. 



Ex. IV. Parse all the prepositions in the poem " Sea- 
drift;' pages 318, 319. 



193. THE CONJUNCTION. 

There are four kinds of words that, besides their primary 
use in the sentence, serve as connectives : copulative verbs, 
relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and prepositions. 

In addition to these connective words, there is also 
the Conjunction, a word that is used chiefly *to connect. 
(Gr. 26, pp. 42, 43.) 

Conjunctions are used to connect (1) words and phrases 
of equal rank, (2) the members of compound sentences, 
(3) clauses to the elements they modify. 

According to their use, conjunctions are divided into 
two classes, — coordinate and subordinate. (Gr. 88, p. 1 24, 
81, p. 114.) 

Coordinate Conjunctions connect the parts of a sentence 
so that they remain equal in rank ; Subordinate Conjunctions 
connect the parts so that one becomes dependent upon the 
other. For example, if we connect the two sentences 

(1) He is industrious and (2) He succeeds with the coor- 
dinate conjunction and, we form a compound sentence the 
members of which are of equal rank ; thus, 

He ^ is \ industrious he f\ succeeds. 

I and F 



288 GRAMMAR 

But if we connect these sentences with the subordinate 
conjunction because we change their rank so that one 
becomes an adverbial clause dependent upon the other ; 

thus, 

He [\ succeeds 

I because 

he /\ is \ industrious. 

The word that when used to introduce a noun clause is sometimes 
classed as a subordinate conjunction. It seems, however, to be used to 
give euphony to the sentence rather than to connect its parts, and may 
be classed as an Expletive. Thus, 



I l\ know 



that 

he j\ is \ industrious. 



Correlative Conjunctions. Conjunctions often occur in 
pairs, the first one preparing the way for the secondhand 
having no connecting power by itself. 

Omit and from the first of the following sentences and as from the 
second, and note the loss of connection and of meaning: 



both 





•wise 


He f\ is 


/ and 




\ good 


He /\ 


is \ good 




| so 




as | not 
he A is\ wise 



He is both 1 wise and good. 



2. He is not so * good as he is wise. 



These words taken together are called Correlatives, a 
word that means having mutual relation. 

1 In the first sentence notice that both . . . and are coordinate correlatives, 
and that both may be omitted without changing the meaning, being merely intro- 
ductory ; but in the second so ... as are subordinate correlatives, and so is an 
adverb and can not be omitted without changing the meaning. 



THE CONJUNCTION 289 

The most common correlative conjunctions are "both . . . and," 
"either . . . or," "neither . . . nor," "whether . . . or," "as . . . 
as," "so . . . as," and "not only . . . but also." 

Cautions, i. Correlatives should be so placed that they will in- 
dicate clearly what expressions the author wishes to connect. As a 
rule the word after the first correlative should be the same part of 
speech as the word after the second ; as, 

1. He gave both advice and ?no?iey j 
not He both gave advice and money. 

2. He may give the book either to you or to me ; 
not He may either give the book to you or to me. 

3. She dresses not only richly but also tastefully ; 
not She not only dresses richly but tastefully. 

2. Do not use "neither . . . or" for "neither . . . nor.' 1 '' 

4. He was discouraged by neither danger nor inisfortune ; 
not He was discouraged by neither danger or ?nisfortune. 

3. "A s . . . as" is used in making equal comparisons; "so 
. . . as" is used in making unequal comparisons. 

5. He is as good as he is wise. 

6. He is not so good as he is wise. 

Note. Two or more words may be taken together and used as a 
single conjunction : as if, as though, as long as, as soon as, as sure as, 
except that, in case that, in order that, forasmuch as, provided that. 

Parsing Conjunctions. In parsing a conjunction we need 
only to tell its kind and its use, or what it connects. 

Test Questions. 

1. How does a preposition differ from a conjunction? 2. What 
prepositions should be used after words having the prefixes ad, ab, 
con? 3. How do in and into, among and between, differ in use? (Give 
examples.) 4. What five kinds of connective words are there? 5. Il- 
lustrate and explain the use of each kind of connective. 6. Explain 
the difference in use between a coordinate and a subordinate conjunc- 
tion. 7. What is the meaning of the term correlative? 8. What part 
of speech should follow the second term of a correlative conjunction? 

STEPS ENG. — IQ. 



290 GRAMMAR 

9. How do as ... as and so ... as differ in use? 10. Write five 

sentences to illustrate the correct use of either . . . or and neither 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Write or select from your reader five sentences, 
usiiig different correlative conjunctions in each sentence. 

Ex. II. Point out tlie conjunctions in the selections on 
pages 50, 131, 322, and tell the kind and use of each. 



194. INTERJECTIONS AND EXPLETIVES. 

Interjections, being independent elements, have no syn- 
tax. (See Gr. 27, pp. 44, 45.) 

The expletives there, for, that, and as are each used in 
only one construction, as shown on pp. 19, 100, 123, 292- 
294. 



195. WORDS VARIOUSLY USED. 

The part of speech to which a word belongs, is de- 
termined solely by its use. If the word run is spoken, it is 
impossible to tell its part of speech without having the 
speaker's idea. If he is thinking of a small stream or of a 
path followed by wild animals, or of any one of several other 
things, it is a noun ; but if he is thinking of moving swiftly 
on the feet, or of any one of more than forty other acts 
(see " Webster's International Dictionary "), it is a verb. 

Many words may be thus used as several different parts 



WORDS VARIOUSLY USED 291 

of speech. It is therefore never safe to say that a word 
is of any given part of speech until its use, that is, its re- 
lation to the other words of a sentence, has been carefully 
studied. 

The following list of words variously used is given pri- 
marily to emphasize the necessity of careful examination 
before stating that a word belongs to any given class. 
Occasionally, also, it may be useful for reference. 

A . . . Article or Adj. A wise son maketh a glad father. 

Prep. I go a-fishing. I set it a-going. This use is now 
infrequent in literature. It means to or for. 
About . Adv. It came about 1 in this way. About ten were 
injured. 
Prep. He went about his work. Have you much money 
about you? 
Above . Adj. The above remarks may be safely quoted. 
Adv. O Father that rulest above ! 
Noun. Every good gift cometh from above. 
Prep. Above the clouds is the sun still shining. 
After . . Adj. After ages will record his good deeds. 
Adv. He went forth soon after. 
Conj. Adv. I started after it had become dark. 
Prep. After an unselfish deed the heart is light. 
Alike . . Adj. They look alike. 

Adv. All should be alike anxious to do deeds of 
kindness. 
All . . . Adj. Pleasant words are all remembered. 

Adj. Pronoun. All should determine to succeed. 

Adv. A young man should live all for success rather 

than all for pleasure. 
Noun. To her country she gave her all, ten noble sons. 
Any . . Adj. Will any man forget his mother? 

Adj. Pronoun. Any who deserve it, may achieve honor. 
Adv. Is he any better? (With comparative adj.; col- 
loquial.) 

1 As came about means the same as happened, the two words may be taken 
together as the verb. 



292 



GRAMMAR 



As . . . Adv. (the first of the correlatives as . . . as). He will 
do the work as well as it can be done. 
Conj. (the second of the correlatives as ... as). He is 

as honest as you say. 
Conj. Adv. He came as he had promised. 
Expletive (as sign of apposition). He went out as mate. 

Booth often appeared as Hamlet. 
Relative Pronoun (after suck, same, many). As many as 
I saw were ready. 
Before . Adv. He had been there before. 

Conj. Adv. Before he crossed the Hellespont, Alexander 

had dreamed of conquering the world. 
Prep. He stood before the inn. 
Below . Adj. Looking forth, he saw the plain below. 
Adv. Go below, quickly ! 
Noun. A frightened voice came from below. 
Prep. The spring is a few rods below the old elm. 
Both . . Adj. We heard both sides of the argument. 

Adj. Pronotm. Both helped to win the victory. 
Conj. (the first of the correlatives both . . . and). He is 
both famous and honest. 
But . . Adj. Men are but children of a larger growth. 
Adv. If they kill us, we shall but die. 
Conj. There is little hope, but I shall try. 
Prep. All but the determined fail in the race of life. 
Relative Pro. (after negative expressions, with the mean- 
ing that not). There is no lad but honors his mother. 
By . . . Adv. He walked by 1 without speaking. 
Prep. He went by rail, not by steamer. 
Either. . Adj. The word is pronounced either way. 

Adj. Pronoun. Either will prove a good investment. 
Conj. (first of correlatives either . . . or). Every boy 
should receive an education either in school or in shop. 
Each . . Adj. Each warrior drew his battle blade. 

Adj. Pronoun. Each took off his hat. 
Else . . Adj. This is no one else's 2 business. No one else can 
earn a man's success for him. 
Adv. How else can I do it? 

Conj. Thou desirest not sacrifice, else would I give it. 
1 Perhaps the verb is walk by. 
* Note that the possessive sign is idiomatically transferred to the adjective. 



WORDS VARIOUSLY USED 



293 



Enough . Adj. We have lunch enough for all. 

Adj. Pronoun. We have enough for all. 
Adv. I know you well enough. 
Interjection. Enough ! ! Say no more ! 
Except . Co?ij. Except the Lord build the house, they labor in 
vain that build it. 
Prep. I will pay for everything except the luxuries. 
Verb. We except to the testimony of the first witness. 
For . . Conj. We did not wait longer, for it was becoming dark. 
Expletive. For 2 boys to forget their honor is fatal. 
Prep. He gave up all for honor. 
Full . . Adj. The path of life is full of thorns. 

Adv. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 
Noun. The moon shone at its full. 
Verb. Manufacturers sometimes full woolen fabrics. 
Hard . . Adj. The lessons are too long and hard. 

Adv. The boy worked so hard that he became ill. 
However . Conj. He may not come ; however, I shall tell him if he 
does. 
Adv. However hard he works, he fails to succeed. 
Ill . . . Adj. There's some ill planet reigns. 

Adv. Ill fares the land . . . where men decay. 
Noun. O'er all the ills of life victorious. 
Late . . Adj. Late pupils are usually careless. 
Adv. Some girls study early and late. 
Like . . Adj. The staff of his spear was like 3 a weaver's beam. 
Adv. She sings like 3 a nightingale. (This should not 
be confused with the conjunctive adverb as in " She 
sings as a nightingale sings." Like is an adverb 
modifying sings. Nightingale is the object of the 
preposition to or unto, understood, the phrase unto a 
nighti?igale being adverbial and modifying like. 
When used in comparing objects like is an adjective ; 
when used in comparing acts it is an adverb. Notice 

1 This may be called an adjective used for a noun : " You have said enough." 
See page 45. 

2 To call for thus used an expletive gives the term a wider meaning than it has 
when applied to there introductory (Gr. 9) . The word is used thus by idiom ; it 
is certainly not a preposition, as it shows no relation between words ; it is there- 
fore perhaps wise to widen the meaning of expletive enough to include it. 

3 Some authors consider like thus used to be equivalent to a preposition. 



294 GRAMMAR 

Like . . that when the second verb is expressed, as and not 

like should be used: "He runs like a deer;" but, 
" He runs as a deer runs ; He runs as a deer does.") 
Noun. Like produces like. We shall not look upon his 

like again. 
Verb. Employers like punctuality. 
Low . . Adj. The land lies low. Keep your voice low. 

Adv. She speaks low and distinctly. 
More . . Adj. Ye are of more value than many sparrows. 

Adj. Pronowi. They that would have more and more can 

never have enough. 
Adv. Honesty is more valuable than brilliancy. 

The scenes of my childhood are near and dear to me. 
Do not come near. 
The ship passed near the bar. 
The ships near the shore. 

He must needs (necessarily) go through Samaria. 
A boy must watch his employer's needs. 
Man daily needs rest. 
Only men of industry succeed. 
One can only try. 
Is that so? 

He was so noble that all admired him. 
He was noble ; so they admired him. 
Give me a dollar or so. (An idiom ; perhaps it is 
more nearly an adverb : — "a dollar or about so much 
money.") 
That . . Adj. That boy will succeed who is industrious. 
Adj. Pronoun. That is the book I prefer. 
Conj. They died that we might be free. 
Expletive. We know that we are free. 
Pel. Pronoun. The boy that is industrious will succeed. 
The „ . Article or Adj. The boy that thinks first of others is 
unselfish. 
Adv. The more the better. (An idiom.) 
While . Conj. Adv. Make hay while the sun shines. 

Noun. That is worth while (adverbial objective). 
Verb. Music whiled away the evening pleasantly. 
Worth . Adj. Nobility is worth more than money. 
Noun. Worth makes the man. 
Verb. Woe worth (be to) the day, 






Near . 


. Adj. 




Adv. 




Prep. 




Verb. 


Needs . 


. Adv. 




Noun 




Verb. 


Only . 


. Adj. 




Adv. 


So . . 


. Adj. 




Adv. 




Conj. 




Noun 



GENERAL REVIEW 



196. GENERAL REVIEW. 



295 



Test Questions, i. How do you determine whether a group of 
words is a phrase, a clause, or a sentence ? 2. What punctuation 
should not be used to close sentences ? 3. When should a declarative 
sentence not be marked at its close by a period or an exclamation 
point? 4. How are words classified as parts of speech? 5. What 
part of speech does the predicate always contain ? 6. What part of 
speech is used chiefly to connect? 7. What kind of verbs are used 
as connective words ? 8. What parts of speech are used as modifiers ? 
9. In the expression A new dress does the word tiew increase or 
diminish the number of objects to which the word dress may be 
applied? Why? 10. When are two or more adjectives, used with 
one noun, not separated by commas? 

11. What is the literal meaning of the word infinitive? 12. 
Wherein do infinitives and participles agree? 13. How do they 
differ in form? 14. Which form of the participle is never used as a 
noun? 15. Of what importance is the classification of nouns as con- 
crete and abstract? As common and proper? 16. What eight uses 
of the noun require a capital letter ? Illustrate. 17. How is the case 
of nouns determined? 18. In the sentence All the air a solemn 
stillness holds why is the case of the nouns air and stillness not clearly 
made known ? 19. How many different forms of pronouns may be 

used to complete the sentence He saw ? 20. Name the 

tenses of the indicative mode, and tell how each is formed. 21. What 
is the difference in meaning between I waited and / was waiting? 
Between / waited an hour and / have waited an hour? Between 
/ shall wait and / will wait ? 

Exercise. Classify the following sentence as to use and 
as to structure ; tell the part of speech and give tJie syntax 
of each word ; select four phrases, and tell how eacJi is 
used ; change the sentence to the declarative form, arrange 
the words in their natural order, and then diagram. 

O what a glory doth this world put on 
For him who with a fervent heart, goes forth 
Under the bright and glorious sky, and looks 
On duties well performed, and days well spent ! 

— Longfellow. 



II. COMPOSITION. 

DETAILS THAT PICTURE. MISCELLANY. 

197. PRACTICAL DESCRIPTIONS. 

The following selection is a piece of description that is 
practical rather than literary. In what order does the 
author tell of the various acts of the boys ? 

The Eel Trap. 

The Moodna creek had now become very low, and not more than 
half its stony bed was covered with water. ... A holiday was given 
to the boys, and they went to work to construct an eel weir and trap. 
With trousers well rolled up, they selected a point on one side of the 
creek where the water was deepest, and here they left an open 
passage-way for the current. On each side of this they began to roll 
large stones, and on these placed smaller ones, raising two long 
obstructions to the natural flow. These continuous obstructions ran 
obliquely up stream, directing the main current to the open passage, 
which was only about two feet wide, narrowing it still more. In this 
they placed the trap, a long box made of lath, sufficiently open to 
let the water run through it, and having a peculiar opening at the 
upper end where the current began to rush down the narrow passage- 
way. The box rested closely on the gravelly bottom, and was fastened 
to posts. Short, close-fitting slats from the bottom and top of the 
box, at its upper end, sloped inward, till they made a narrow opening. 
All its other parts were eel-tight. The eels coming down with the 
current, which had been directed towards the entrance of the box, as 
has been explained, passed into it, and there they would remain. 
They never had the wit to find the narrow aperture by which they 
had entered . — Selected. 

296 



DESCRIPTION 297 

Exercise. 

Describe the building of a "shanty" ; the making and setting of a 
trap of some kind ; the digging of a cave ; the building of a dam and 
the placing of a miniature water-wheel ; the planning, grading, and 
'finishing of a tennis court ; the making of a piece of fancy work ; the 
making of bread, of cake, of candy. Be sure that you describe some- 
thing that is within your own experience, something that you have 
made yourself, or done yourself, or in the making or doing of which 
you have had part. 



198 LEAVING THE OLD HOME. 

The description in this lesson has more of a literary 
flavor, its purpose being, by the mention of a few details, 
to make us feel as though we were really seeing the gar- 
ret and the garden. 

It was hardest for me to leave the garret. . . . The rough raft- 
ers, the music of the rain on the roof, the worn sea-chests with their 
miscellaneous treasures, the blue-roofed cradle, . . . the tape-looms 
and reels and spinning-wheels, the herby smells, and the delight- 
ful dream-corners, these could not be taken with us to the new home. 
Wonderful people had looked out upon us from under those garret- 
eaves. Sindbad the Sailor and Baron Munchausen had sometimes 
strayed in and told us their unbelievable stories ; and we had there 
made acquaintance with the great Caliph Haroun al Raschid. 

To go away from the little garden was almost as bad. Its lilacs 
and peonies were beautiful to me, and in the corner of it was one tiny 
square of earth that I called my own, where I was at liberty to pull 
up my pinks and lady's delights every day, to see whether they had 
taken root, and where I could give my lazy morning-glory seeds a 
poke, morning after morning, to help them get up and begin their 
climb. Oh, I should miss the garden very much indeed ! 

— Lucy Larcom in "A New England Girlhood." 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Shut your eyes and try to see this garret. In the same way 
try to see the garden. The picture you see is made up of the details 




298 



DETAILS THAT PICTURE 299 

mentioned, and of various other details added by your imagination. 
The details added by your imagination have been drawn from your 
experience, that is, from the garrets and gardens you have seen and 
played in, and the ones of which you have read and heard and talked. 
What details are mentioned to make us see the garret ? Does the 
music of the rain make you see it, or help you to feel as though you 
were really there? What other details are given that do not appeal 
to the sight? What ones appeal to your experience in a garden? 

Ex. II. Describe a grove in which you have played. Use details 
appealing to the sight, to the hearing, and to the smell. What differ- 
ent sounds belong particularly to such a place ? What odors ? What 
words may be used to describe the sound made by the brook? By 
the birds? By the wind in the tree-tops? By the leaves? In the 
woods are all places on the ground reached by an equal amount of 
light? Is any sunshine to be seen? 

Describe a play-room you have seen, using details that will suggest 
it vividly to the reader. What sounds are heard ? 



199. BREAKING THE HOME TIES. 

After the Painting by Thomas Hovenden. 

Ex. I. Which figures are most prominent in the picture? Who 
is the woman ? Who is the boy ? The title of the picture means 
what? 

Why has the woman her hands on the boy's shoulders ? Where is 
she looking? Why? Why so intently? What are her feelings, 
judging from the lines of her mouth? Is she speaking? What do 
you think is going on in her mind ? 

What is the boy looking at ? Why not at his mother? If he looks 
at her, what do you think may happen? What are his feelings, judg- 
ing from the way he is holding his head and from the expression on 
his face? Is he holding his hat loosely or firmly? Why? Do you 
think he wishes to go away? Where do you suppose he is going? 

Who is the young woman seated near the dog? What is she look- 
ing at? Why not at the boy? Where is her hand ? Why? What 
do you think is in the package on her knee ? What is leaning against 
her knee ? What is there that makes us know how she feels? 



3<D0 COMPOSITION 

At whom is the dog looking? To whom does he belong? What 
kind of dog is he ? What does he seem to be thinking ? 

Who is the man walking toward the door? What is he carrying? 
Why has he picked it up and turned his back toward the woman and 
boy? Who is the elderly lady sitting near the table? At whom is 
she looking? What does her expression seem to tell about her 
thoughts? Who is the little girl back of her? At whom is she look- 
ing? Why? From the way she holds her head, what can you tell 
about her thoughts ? Who is the man looking in at the door ? 

What time of year is it? What time of day? Why is the table 
set? Has the boy along or a short trip before him?. Who will go 
with him to the station ? Does this family live in the city or in the 
country? What feeling do you have as you look at this picture ? 

Ex. II. With book closed describe this picture orally. Then 
write a description of it. 

Write an account of a trip you have taken. Tell of leaving home, 
of your feelings when leaving, and of your feelings when away. 

Write an account of this boy's trip, of an incident in his life in the 
city, or of his feelings the first night he is in a boarding house. 



200. BILLS AND RECEIPTS. 

You (George Williams) have been left in charge of your 
father's store. During the time he is away a gentleman 
comes in and lays down ten dollars and a statement, which 
you find reads thus : 

Joseph A. Williams, 
Grocer. 

Dubois, Pa., Nov. i, 1902. 
Sold to 

H. G. Kane, Dubois, Pa. 

Oct. 2. 14 lb. Ham at 15^ $2.10 

" 7. 20 lb. Sugar at 6fi 1.20 

" 10. 10 cans Tomatoes at 13^ 1.30 

" 24. 1 Box Soap 4.50 



BILLS AND RECEIPTS 3 QI 

After receiving the change Mr. Kane will wish some- 
thing to show in case he should be asked again to pay the 
bill. Taking the bill, you write at the bottom of it 

Received payment, 

Joseph A. Williams, 

per George Williams. 

The word peris written before your own name in order 
to show that your father's name has been written by you. 
It is a Latin word meaning through or by. 

If Mr. Kane pays only part of the bill, you write a 
receipt like this, on a separate sheet of paper : 

$2.25 Dubois, Pa., Nov. 6, 1902. 

Received of H. G. Kane Two and 25/100 Dollars on account. 

Joseph A. Williams, 
per George Williams. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. On January 11, 1903, J. F. Goodwin, dealer in hardware, 
Titusville, Pa., sells to F. K. Linwood one sled for $2.00 and a pair 
of skates for #1.75 ; on January 20 he sells him 20 pounds of nails at 
5 cents a pound ; on the 24th he sells him a stove for $22.50 ; on the 
28th he sells him a saw for $1.50 and an ax for $1.75. 

Make out a bill on February 1st. Receipt the bill. Write a sepa- 
rate receipt for the amount of the bill. Write a receipt for money 
paid on account. 

Ex. II. Make out a bill that a general merchant might send to a 
customer; one that a shoe dealer might send; one that a jeweler 
might send; one that a physician might send, saying "For Profes- 
sional Services from Oct. 1st to date." 

A real estate agent receives a check for $30.00 in payment of rent 
for house number 11 Josephine Street, Greensburg, Pa., the check 
being sent by John H. Roberts. Write a receipt for the same, show- 
ing date received, from whom, amount, rent for what month, and for 
what house. 



302 COMPOSITION 



201. WORDS TO WATCH. 

Get means to obtain, to co?ne into possession of. 
Have means to own, to possess. 






The word got, a form of get, is often incorrectly used 
with have to indicate ownership or possession ; as, / have 
got a new suit instead of / have a new suit. This usage 
should be avoided. 

Get is also often used in such expressions as I must get 
my lessons, I got sick, I have got to do it, etc. This is 
using a general word where a special word will be much 
more precise. Say / must learn my lessons, I became sick, 
I must do it, etc. Keep the word get in all its forms for 
its precise meaning, to obtain, to come into possession of. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. State the difference in meaning between I have a new suit 
and / have got a new suit. 

Use correctly ££/ (or got) in at least ten sentences. 

Ex. II. Use a more precise word than get or got in each 
of the following sentences: 

I got a new cap. I got a dollar for the dog. I have got cold. 
Get me a pair of shoes. They are going to get married. When did 
you get home? I have got the book you wished. May I get warm? 
Why don't you get him a doctor? 



202. JOYOUS DAYS. 

Dandy and I took another walk this afternoon. We went over the 
hill, up the valley, and along the brook, where we found the pussy 
willows creeping out on almost every bough. Coming home across 



DESCRIPTION 303 

the fields we saw the robin redbreasts hopping in the furrow behind 
the plow, with eye intent for luckless worms. Of course Dandy raced 
after them, barking, but the dear fellow would not harm them, even 
if they would let him. 

Some violets peeped at us from the awakening grass, and the 
dandelion show, an array of gold, again and again stopped us. A 
thistle finch, who had changed his dull coat for one of yellow, flew 
past, assuring us by his mere presence that the warm sun will soon 
make all nature happy. 

Ten days ago, on a bright southern hillside, we found the fragrant 
arbutus nestling under its covers of brown leaves, and now unnum- 
bered flocks of young anemones are dancing among the budding 
trees, all as joyous as a crowd of laughing girls let out of dull, dry 
school for a woodland holiday. 

The days of joy have surely come again ! — Adapted. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. What time of the year is the author describing? What 
eight items or details does he use to suggest the beauty of this season? 
What is the pussy willow ? The thistle finch ? The anemone ? 

What does the expression pussy willow make you think of besides 
the willow with its silky catkins? That is, what associations, entirely 
apart from its dictionary meaning, are suggested by it? Does 
it recall the place where it grows and its beauty, the delight with 
which we see it each spring, etc. ? What other pleasant associations 
has it? What does the word brook make you think of besides a 
small stream of water ? What does behind the plow suggest ? Dande- 
lio?i ? Young anemones ? Budding trees ? 

What does the author mean when he says the pussy willows are 
creeping out on every bough? Do they really creep? Vsz appear- 
ing now instead of creeping out ; which is the better expression and 
why? Do the thistle birds really change their coats ? Use a literally 
true expression instead of this one. Which is the better expression ? 
Why? Is it correct to speak of a great number of dandelions as a 
show ? Use a literal expression. What is meant by saying that the 
dandelion show has begun in an array of gold? What is the literal 
word to use instead of gold? Which is better? 

What two words in the third line of the third paragraph are not lit- 
erally true? Substitute literal words. Is the literal word or the figur- 
ative word better ? 



304 COMPOSITION 



The words creeping, coats, flame, show, flocks, dancing, awakening, 
nestling, and covers are said to be used figuratively. Such uses of 
words are called figures of speech. While it is not literally true to say 
that flocks of young anemones are dancing around the trees, yet there 
is a way in which the expression is true. Try to explain its truth. 

Ex. II. In a paragraph or two, using six to ten details, describe 
one of the seasons. Seek words that will suggest more than their 
dictionary meaning, and also try to use two or three figures of speech. 

Bring into class a list of five figures of speech used in conversation. 

Ex. III. Describe a picnic dinner at which you have been present, 
using suggestive detail's. 

Describe the unpacking of the picnic baskets. In doing so use 
many suggestive details drawn from color, — the color of the buns, 
of the jellies and cakes, of the eggs and of the various fruits, etc. Use 
adjectives or descriptive words that will make us see the tablecloth, 
the picnic plates, and spoons, knives, forks, etc. 

Describe your ideal picnic place. Take a real place as the founda- 
tion of your description, adding such other details as will make it 
ideal. Use suggestive details to make us see the trees, the brook or 
the lake, the flowers, the old log, the vines, the rocks, etc. Remem- 
ber that details suggestive to the hearing are helpful. 

Ex. IV. Tell the story of a picnic you have recently attended. 
Make use of details to picture the various scenes you mention; use 
other details to make known your different moods ; use other details to 
bring out contrasts (see 51, p. 74) ; use other details to suggest rather 
than to tell what you did. Be as vivid, as interesting, and as real as 
it is possible for you to be with a free use of suggestive details of 
various kinds. 



203. THE PRONOUN: SOME DANGERS. 

Notice the following sentence : 

She amiouced that the coffee was ready, and every one settled them- 
selves tc a hearty meal. 

In the above sentence the error is in the use of the pro- 



DESCRIPTION 305 

noun themselves, a word meaning more than one, to refer 
to the word one. The sentence of course should read, 
" every one settled himself to a hearty meal." From this 
we may deduce the following rules for composition : 

Be suie that a pronoun is in harmony with the word for which it 
stands. 

When a pronoun refers to persons of both sexes, use the form of 
the pronoun that as a rule refers only to men and boys ; as, himself 
above refers to every one, which includes both boys and girls. (See 

P- 1730 . 

(Review pp. 208-210, 214, 215.) 



204. THE DEN. 

The following description not only makes us see the 
room, but does much towards making us know the character 
of the foreign gentleman (see Comp. 58) that occupies it : 

" ' Did you ever see such a den, my dear? Just come and help me 
put these books to rights, for I've turned everything upside down try- 
ing to discover what he did with the six new handkerchiefs I gave 
him [the foreign gentleman] not long ago.' 

" I went in, and while we worked I looked about me, for it was 'a 
den' to be sure. Books and papers everywhere; a broken meer- 
schaum, and an old flute over the mantelpiece as if done with ; a rag- 
ged bird without any tail chirped on one window seat, and a box of 
white mice adorned the other ; half-finished boats and bits of string 
lay among the manuscript; dirty little boots stood drying before 
the fire ; and traces of the dearly loved boys, for whom he makes a 
slave of himself, were to be seen all over the room. After a grand 
rummage three of the missing articles were found, — one over the 
bird cage, one covered with ink, and a third burnt brown, having been 
used as a holder. — Louisa M. Alcott in "Little Women.' 1 '' 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. What do the books and papers suggest about his character? 
The flute? The birds and mice? The boats and bits of string? 

STEPS FNG. — 20. 



306 COMPOSITION 

The manuscript? The boots by the fire? ' The location and condition 
of the various handkerchiefs that were found? Note that these vari- 
ous articles are also suggestive details to make us see the room. 

Ex. II. Describe a yard that you know, — one that makes known 
the character of its owner. 

Describe a room of the same nature, trying both to make us see 
the room and to make us know the character. 

Describe a grocery store that you know, one showing a careless, 
negligent owner. Describe one showing a neat and careful owner. 



205. SNARING FISH. 

Read the following account of a sport familiar to boys : 

The boy is armed with a pole and a stout line, and on the end of 
it a brass wire bent into a hoop, which is a slip noose and slides to- 
gether when anything is caught in it. The boy approaches the bank 
and looks over. There the fish lies, calm as a whale. The boy de- 
vours him with his eyes. He is almost too much excited to drop the 
snare into the water without making a noise. A puff of wind comes 
and ruffles the surface so that he can not see the fish. It is calm again, 
and there he still is, moving his fins in peaceful security. The boy 
lowers his snare behind the fish and slips it along. He intends to get 
it around him just back of the gills, and then to elevate him with a 
sudden jerk. It is a delicate operation, for the snare will turn a little, 
and if it hits the fish he is off. However, it goes well, the wire is 
almost in place, when suddenly the fish . . . moves his tail just a little, 
and glides out of the loop, and . . . lounges over to the other side of 
the pool; and there he reposes just as if he were not spoiling the 
boy's holiday. 

This slight change of base on the part of the fish requires the boy 
to . . . get a new position on the bank, a new line of approach, and 
patiently wait for the wind and the sun before he can lower his line. 
This time cunning and patience are rewarded. The hoop encircles 
the unsuspecting fish. The boy's eyes nearly start from his head as 
he gives a tremendous jerk and feels by the dead weight that he has 
him fast. Out he comes, up he goes in the air, and the boy runs to 
look at him. — Charles Dudley Warner in " Being a Boy." 



LETTERS 307 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. What is done by the first sentence? Why should a new 
paragraph be begun just after the fish moves away? Which details 
are mentioned that are absolutely necessary in order to understand 
the facts? Which other details are inserted simply for the purpose of 
making the incident seem real, of making us feel as though we were 
there and were ourselves holding the pole and snaring the fish? 
Which details are most necessary to make this story interesting ? 



Ex. II. Tell and then write of some fishing experience of your 
own. Mention only the really suggestive details. Tell of the events 
in their exact order. 

Tell and then write of a hunting experience ; of a berrying experi- 
ence; of an experience in catching a butterfly; in capturing a pet 
bird or animal that has escaped. Whatever subject you write on, let 
it be a recent and vivid experience. 



206. THE LETTER OF INTRODUCTION. 

The letter of introduction is a kind of letter that boys 
and girls, as well as men and women, occasionally find 
useful. Suppose you (Sarah Ganning) are going to Can- 
ton, Ohio, to live. A friend of yours, Martha Jordan, 
knows you are going and tells you that she has a very 
dear friend there, Margaret Wilson, to whom she will give 
you a letter of introduction. A day or two later she stops 
at your home and leaves it for you. You find the envelope 
addressed thus : 

Miss Margaret Wilson, 
134 Seelye Ave., 
Introducing Miss Sarah Ganning. Canton, Ohio. 

Examining it, you discover that it is not sealed ; for it is 
not customary to seal such a letter. Opening it, you find 
it reads as follows : 



308 COMPOSITION 

121 Park Ave., Meadville, Pa., 
December 2, 1902. 
Miss Margaret Wilson, 
134 Seelye Ave., 

Canton, Ohio. 
My dear Margaret: — I learned only yesterday that a schoolmate 
and special friend of mine is to move to your city next week. She is 
Sarah Ganning, and I have asked her to hand you this letter, as I 
wish you and her, both so dear to me, to become equally dear to each 
other. I am sure that I do not need to ask you to do whatever is 
within your power to make Canton a real home for her. 

With much love and many hopes that you and Sarah will speedily 
become the- best of friends, I am, 

Ever yours affectionately, 

Martha Jordan. 

You at once realize that such a letter will, make your 
life in Canton more full of sunshine, and of course you are 
grateful for it. 

Such letters are often given by men to other men, both 
for business and for social reasons. The body of such a 
letter might read as follows : 

My dear Sir: — The bearer of this letter, Mr. Joseph H. Moore, 
will be in your city for some weeks, engaged in the completion of a 
large commercial project. Any favors that you may show him in 
either a business or a social way will be fully appreciated by him and 
will be remembered by me as though granted to myself. 



Exercise. 

Insert the omitted portions of the above letter. 

John Winters is going to Syracuse, N.Y., to live. Give him a letter 
of introduction to Frank H. Stacy, a close friend of yours living at 
765 North Park Avenue. Address an envelope for the letter. 

J. H. Jones, stationer and bookseller, is going to New York, to try 
to complete the purchase of a store on Fifth Avenue. Write for him 
a letter of introduction to William F. Adams, who lives at 348 West 
31st Street. 



DESCRIPTION 309 

Jane Merigan is to spend the winter studying music at Mt. Union 
College, Alliance, Ohio. Give her a letter of introduction to Mr. and 
Mrs. C. F. McAdams, 395 Aiken Avenue. 

Mr. J. W. Stein wishes to ask a favor of L. K. Fitzon, who is a 
councilman in Youngstown, Ohio. Give him a letter of introduction. 

Jeanette S. Dixon wishes to consult Dr. F. M. Heck, a noted ocu- 
list of Cleveland, Ohio, who is an intimate friend of yours. Give her 
a letter of introduction. 



207. A NIGHT AFIELD. 

The selection that follows, attempts by means of descrip- 
tion to make the reader feel as though he himself were 
spending the night on the prairie, several miles from home : 

Once the boys secured permission to camp all night [in the meadow] 
beside the wagon, and after the men drove away h'omeward they 
busied themselves eating supper and making up their beds on piles of 
hay, with the delicious feeling that they were real campers on the 
plains. This feeling of exaltation died out as the light paled in the 
western sky. The wind suddenly grew cold, and the sky threatened a 
storm. The world became each moment more menacing. Out of the 
darkness came obscure noises. Now it seemed like the slow, sinister 
movement of a rattlesnake — now it was the hopping, intermittent 
movement of a polecat. 

Lincoln was secretly appalled by these sinister changes, but the 
feeling that he was shielding weakness made him strong, and he kept 
a cheerful voice. He lay awake long after Owen fell asleep, with 
eyes strained toward every moving shadow, his ears intent for every 
movement in the grass. He had the primitive man's sense of warfare 
against nature, recalled his bed in the garret with fervent longing, and 
resolved never again to tempt the dangers of the night. He fell asleep 
only when the moon rose and morning seemed near. 

The coming of the sun rendered the landscape good and cheerful 
and friendly again, and he was ashamed to acknowledge how nervous 
he had been. When his father returned, and asked with a smile, 
" Well, boys, how did you enjoy it?" Lincoln replied, "Oh, . . . it 
was lots of fun." — Hamlin Garland hi " Boy Life on the P r airie^^ 

1 Used by permission of the Macmillan Company, owners of the copyright. 




3io 



NARRATIVES 311 



Exercises. 

Ex. I. Notice that the boys are happy as long as they are busy. 
What is the first fact that brings a change to their feelings? What 
similar experience have you had? What senses detect the next de- 
tails that bring terror ? The appeal in the last sentence of the first 
paragraph is to what sense ? How does the thought of the rattlesnake 
affect you? 

What suggestion in the first sentence of the second paragraph? 
Why the strained eyes and the intent ears? What is suggested by 
the fervent longing and the resolve ? Why the change in feelings 
brought by the return of the sun ? 



Ex. 1 1. Tell and then write of an experience of your own in spend- 
ing the night out of doors ; or of an experience in passing by yourself 
along a lonely walk, path, or road, in the darkness ; of an experience 
in remaining alone in the house all night or till very late ; of an expe- 
rience upon awakening in the night with the feeling that, some intruder 
is in your room or in the house, is on the porch roof, or is trying to 
unlock the front door. 



208. MOZART AND HIS SISTER BEFORE MARIA THERESA. 

After the Painting by Borckrnann. 

Ex. I. How many persons are shown in this picture ? How many 
are women? How many are children? At which persons are all 
the others looking? Why? Who are the children at the piano? 
How old do you judge they are? Why your answer? What are the 
books on the floor? For what are they there ? 

Maria Theresa was empress of Germany. Which figure here 
represents her? Which of the women seems most richly dressed? 
Why are several of the company leaning forward ? Why has the 
woman near the center lifted her hand and spread out her fingers? 

What do the various things used in furnishing and decorating this 
room make known about its owners ? What is suggested by the dress 
of the various persons? Why have most of them white hair? How 
are the children dressed? Which one has white hair? 

Why is this a supreme moment in the lives of these children ? What 
will be the result if this company approve of their music? What will 



312 COMPOSITION 

be the result if they do not approve ? How, then, do you suppose 
these children feel ? 

How great a musician did this boy become? When did he live? 

Ex. II. Write an imaginary story about these children. 
Write a story of an experience of your own in connection with 
music lessons or with a musical performance. 

Write an account of an experience of your own watching a parade. 
Write an account of some important event or day in your own life. 
Write a description of this picture. 



209. THE NOTE OF INVITATION. 

Read the following formal invitation and reply : 

Mrs. Alan T. Gardiner requests the pleasure of Miss Ross's com- 
pany at dinner on Thursday, May twenty-first, at six o'clock. 
ii Josephine Street, 
May Sixteenth. 

Miss Ross regrets that illness prevents her acceptance of Mrs. 
Gardiner's kind invitation for Thursday evening. 
26 Pointvue Avenue, 

May Seventeenth. 

An affirmative reply would state that " Miss Ross 
accepts with pleasure Mrs. Gardiner's invitation," etc. 



Exercise. 

Notice that the invitation is written in the third person. Write a 
note to yourself in which Mrs. James Huntley Harper asks you to be 
present at a birthday party that she is to give for her daughter, Miss 
Harper, on Thursday evening, March 18th, at 180 High Street, Cleve- 
land, Ohio. In a third person note write dates in words, not in 
figures. 

Write an answer to this note, declining. Use the third person. 

Write an answer, accepting. 



WORDS TO WATCH „ 313 



210. WORDS TO WATCH. 

Like means to enjoy, to be pleased with. 

Love means to regard with affection, as one's mother, one's 
country, or one's God. One does not love what one eats. 



Exercise. 

Insert the proper zvord in the blanks in the following 

sentences : 

Oh, I do . olives so much ! Don't you to 

see a game of football ? I to skate. Do you not 

that old gentleman ? George Washington his mother. I 

. to spend my leisure reading poetry. Every lad should 

. his country. Thou shalt thy neighbor as thyself. 

Golf is a game that many people . 



Warning. Be careful not to say you "love " things that you eat. 



211. WINTER. 

When icicles hang by the wall 

And Dick, the shepherd, blows his nail, 
And Tom bears logs into the hall, 

And milk comes frozen home in pail ; 
When blood is nipt, and ways be foul, 
Then nightly sings the staring owl 

Tuwhoo ! 
Tuwhit ! tuwhoo ! A merry note ! 
While greasy Joan doth keel l the pot. 



When all aloud the wind doth blow, 
And coughing drowns the parson's saw, 

And birds sit brooding in the snow, 
And Marian's nose looks red and raw ; 

When roasted crabs 3 hiss in the bowl — 

1 Skim. Or the meaning may be cool. ' 6 Crab-apples. 

2 Wise saying. 



314 . COMPOSITION 

Then nightly sings the staring owl 

Tuwhoo ! 
Tuwhit ! tuwhoo ! A merry note ! 
While greasy Joan doth keel the pot. 

— William Shakespeare. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. What things do these stanzas tell that men do in winter as 
a result of the cold? What other things mentioned are caused 
directly by the cold ? What is meant by hall? By nipt? By ways 
befoul? Why, at this time in the evening, when it is so cold without, 
does Joan "keel the pot"? Why does Shakespeare speak of Dick 
and Tom and Marian and Joan rather than merely speak of the 
shepherd, the servant, the maid, etc.? What sounds are mentioned in 
order to make the winter seem more real? What word is used in 
order to make us see the owl? 

Ex. II. By mentioning various things done by men, by the cold, 
etc., describe winter. Use the details here used, if you wish, but add 
others. In similar manner describe one of the other seasons. 

Ex. III. Write a paragraph about any vivid winter experience 
you have had: how you were caught in a storm, how you went slid- 
ing or skating or sleighing, what you saw in the woods in winter, 
etc. 



212. 1 SUGGESTIVE WORDS. — A NEW ENGLAND SCENE. 

(Before studying this lesson review Comp. 202.) 

Brookfleld village lay in a great wide meadow through which 
strayed one of the mountain's lost brooks, — a brook tired out with 
leaping from bowlder to bowlder, and taking headers into deep pools, 
and plunging down between narrow walls of rock. For here in the 

1 Lessons 212 to 215 inclusive are intended primarily for study and discussion in 
class. Many of the questions call for composite answers, made up of the various 
replies received, rather than for complete answers from individual pupils. In these 
lessons care should be exercised not to expect too much from the pupils. 



SUGGESTIVE WORDS 315 

meadow it caught its breath and rested, idling along, stopping to 
bathe a clump of willows ; whispering in the shallows ; laughing 
gently with another brook that had locked arms with it, the two 
gossiping together under their breath as they floated on through the 
long grasses fringing the banks, or circled about the lily pads growing 
in the eddies. In the middle of the meadow, just where two white 
ribbons of roads crossed, was a clump of trees pierced by a church 
spire. Just outside of this bower of green — a darker green than the 
velvet meadow-grass about it — glistened the roofs and windows of 
the village houses. 

— F. Hopkinson Smith in "The Fortunes of Oliver Horn.' 1 '' 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Mention all the mental pictures that the word meadoiv 
calls up ; also the sounds it causes you to hear, the odors it recalls, the 
kind of day or weather it suggests, and any other associations that 
the word has, in addition to its dictionary meaning of a tract of 
level land regularly mown for hay. 

In like manner discuss in class the pictures, sounds, odors, and 
other associations suggested by each of the following words : moun- 
tain, brook, willows, shallows, banks, eddies, church spire. 

Ex. II. What does the author mean when he says the village lay 
in a meadow? When he says the brook strayed? When he says 
that the mountain had lost a number of brooks? When he says that 
the brook was tired out with leaping and taking headers and plunging ? 
When he says the brook caught its breath, rested, idled, stopped to 
bathe the willows ? When he says that it whispered? When he says 
that another brook locked arms with it and they laughed and gossiped 
together as they floated where the grasses fringed the banks? When 
he says that the roads were white ribbojis and the clump of trees was 
pierced 'by a spire ? That the grass was velvet? 

Discuss in class each of these words, and put in its place if 
possible a word or expression that says exactly the truth the author 
had in mind. If necessary, use a sentence to state the truth. 

Write a paragraph about one of the italicized words in the last line 
of Exercise I., mentioning 'everything that it brings to your mind, 
both things you have seen, heard, smelled, tasted, or touched, and 
things of which you have read and heard. 



316 COMPOSITION 

213. SUGGESTIVE WORDS. 

Can a brook do the various things ascribed to it in 212? 
Who or what can do these things ? These words, then, 
are regularly words used in talking of men, and not words 
used in talking of a brook. Here, however, they are taken 
from the man class and used in the brook class. 

Three words belonging to the brook class are run, flow, 
and ripple. Which of these seems rather to belong to the 
man class ? Use each of these in speaking of men, 
transferring them from the brook class. Use laughter 2& 
the subject of one of them, and life as the subject of 
another. 

Does any one of these words, when used outside of its 
own class, tell the literal truth ? When words telling the 
literal truth are substituted for these words, which are the 
more pleasing ? Which the more suggestive ? Why do 
you prefer " The brook caught its breath and rested " 
(man words used in talking of a brook) to " The brook 
flowed slowly " (brook words) ? 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. What does each of the following combinations of words 
{literary phrases ; note that they differ from grainmatical phrases; 
p. 107, footnote) suggest in the way of pictures, sounds, odors, and 
other associations: from bowlder to bowlder; deep pools ; narrow 
walls of rock ; a clump of willows ; the long grasses ; lily pads grow- 
ing in the eddies j a clump of trees pierced by a church spire; velvet 
meadow-grass . 

Are the same associations aroused if these words are taken sepa- 
rately? Which one of the phrases is made up of words that, taken 
alone, are almost entirely without suggestion ? Which contains a 
word not used literally ? Which contain words that have much sug- 
gestion when used alone ? 



SUGGESTIVE WORDS 31/ 

Ex. II. Determine the various details used to bring before the 
reader this New England scene. Which ones are stated in words 
suggestive in themselves? Which ones in words used figuratively 
(out of their usual class)? Which ones in literary phrases ? Which 
ones in words having little suggestive power? (Note that these 
divisions somewhat overlap.) 



214. SUGGESTIVE WORDS {Continued). 

Literature is largely made up of the various kinds of 
detail. The more important of these are things done, or 
acts suggesting character and feelings (see pp. 50 (31), 
62, 64 (44), 65, 131, etc.) ; and things seen, Jieard, 
smelled, etc., which suggest pictures and experiences (see 
pp. 54 (36), 160, 161, etc.). 

These details may be made known in plain prose words, 
as, Women wept in the street (p. 148) ; in words suggest- 
ive in themselves, as, The hawthorn blooms on the hedges 
(p. 318); in figurative words (words suggestive because 
used out of their usual class), as, The night drags by 
(p. 318) ; and in literary phrases (combinations of related 
words that become more suggestive because used together), 
as, velvet meadow-grass (p. 315). 

Details that make known character and feeling are 
usually stated in plain prose words ; details to recall expe- 
riences and to paint pictures should be stated in words full 
of suggestion. 

Boys and girls, then, both that they may learn to read 
appreciatively and that they may learn to express their 
own thoughts and feelings, should gain all possible skill in 
determining the suggestions hidden within the details and 
within the words used in literature. 



318 COMPOSITION 



Exercise. 

Write a description, containing perhaps a hundred words, of a 
valley, of a lake, of a mountain, of a seashore, of a meadow, of 
a grove or other bit of woods. Try to use all three kinds of suggest- 
ive words as well as suggestive details. After writing this and 
making it as perfect as possible in its suggestion, lay it aside for 
several days. Then take it up again and try to use yet more sug- 
gestive words. Do not be satisfied until each word is exactly the 
right word. It is known that one of the two or three most prominent 
living writers occasionally spends a whole day seeking for a single 
word. He is noted for using words that say exactly what he wishes 
to say, and it is only by such unceasing labor that he finds them. 

From the recent lessons we deduce the following principle of com- 
position : 

Often a suggestive word may be substituted to advantage for a 
prose word. 



215. STUDY OF A POEM. 

Much of the enjoyment of poetry depends upon a power 
to appreciate fully and quickly the suggestions found in 
the words used by the poet, as well as upon a power to 
understand the details he uses. The following stanzas, by 
Mr. Thomas Bailey Aldrich, well illustrate the wondrous 
suggestiveness in well-chosen words : 

Seadrift. 

The night drags by : and the breakers die 

Along the ragged ledges ; 
The robin stirs in his drenched nest ; 

The hawthorn blooms on the hedges. 

In shimmering lines, through the dripping pines 

The stealthy morn advances ; 
And the heavy sea-fog straggles back 

Before those bristling lances. 



STUDY OF A POEM 319 

Still she stands on the wet sea-sands : 

The morning breaks above her, 
And the corpse of a sailor gleams on the rocks — 

What if it were her lover? 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Copy these stanzas and underscore each suggestive word, 
that is, each word that has more than a mere fact or dictionary 
meaning. What details are made use of? What tells the time of 
year? What kind of night has it been ? How do you know? What 
are the bristling lances ? 

How long has she stood on the shore? Is wet sea-sands better 
than shore? Why? Is the last stanza in harmony with or in contrast 
with the first two ? For whom is it that the night drags ? Substitute 
for drags a literal word. Why is the figure of speech better? Substi- 
tute for each of the figurative words a literal word and note the loss 
of power. Substitute prose words for the words that are suggest- 
ive in themselves. What difference does it make ? With closed 
eyes try to see distinctly each of the eight or ten pictures in the 
poem. 

What associations cluster about drags, die, ragged, stealthy, 
straggles, bristling, and breaks ? About each of the words suggest- 
ive in themselves ? 

Ex. II. In the poem quoted are 74 words. In about as many 
words describe the earth and the air after an April shower, an 
autumn pour, or a winter storm. Use as many suggestive details 
as possible, and as many suggestive words, both literal and figura- 
tive. Work at this description for several days, trying to make 
each word the very best possible. You will.be more likely to succeed 
if you write concerning a recent and vivid experience. 

Ex. III. Write a letter to your mother or to a friend. Describe 
a recent experience in which you have been especially interested, — 
a game of some sort, a parade, a trip to the woods or on a train, a 
visit to a theater, an exposition, or a circus. Determine exactly the 
details that have attracted and held your interest. Tell of them, 
omitting any reference to other details. Seek for words that will con- 
vey these sights, sounds, odors, etc., vividly to the person to whom 
you are writing. Be satisfied only with the best word. 




320 



DESCRIPTION 321 

216. RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS AT BARCELONA. 

After the Painting by R. Balaca. 

Ex. I. Where did the event pictured on the opposite page take 
place? Before whom ? Who is the man seated on the platform? 
The woman ? But at which man are most of the people in the picture 
looking? Who is this central figure? Why are they looking at him? 

Judging from the position of his body and of his hands, what is 
Columbus doing? From what place has he recently returned? 
What in the picture assures you of this? What else shown in the 
picture has he brought back with him ? What is on the floor that 
has been taken from the chest? At the left is a man on one knee; 
what is he doing ? 

Find all the people in the picture that are not looking at Columbus. 
At whom are most of them looking? Why? What are the women 
at the left of the picture interested in ? At what are the Indians look- 
ing ? Why ? Which one of them is showing the greatest feeling ? 
How? 

How do you sit when you become deeply interested in what some 
one is saying? How is the king sitting? The queen ? Which seems 
the more interested in the story Columbus is telling? Why your 
answer? Why, perhaps, has the artist represented the woman as 
leaning forward ? What does the position of the king's head indi- 
cate? Where are the officers at the right and left of the dais look- 
ing? Are they supposed to look straight forward or to look about in 
every direction? In what is the boy at the queen's right interested? 
What would you be interested in if you were sitting in his chair? 

Of what is the floor of this room made? What kind of windows 
let light into this room? What is hanging behind the king and 
queen? What is on the steps of the platform? What is under the 
chest and curiosities ? 

Who is the most commanding figure in this picture ? Why has the 
artist made him taller and more noble-looking than any of the other 
men? How is he dressed? How are the other principal characters 
in the picture dressed ? 

Take a position similar to that in which Columbus is represented, — 
body, head, feet, hands. Similar to that of the queen ; to that of the 
king; to that of the nearest Indian. Does the change in position 
result in any change in feeling? If so, try to state the different 
feelings. 

STEPS ENG. — 21. 



322 COMPOSITION 

Look at this picture in every part ; then close your book and with 
eyes shut try to see it as clearly as you saw it with the book open. 
Do this again and again until you can see the picture clearly with 
closed eyes. 

Ex. II. Tell an imaginary story about the little boy at the right 
of the queen ; about one of the Indians. 

Write from memory a story you have read or heard about Colum- 
bus. 

Write an account of a visit you have made to a magnificent public 
building. 

Imagine that you have discovered a cave in the country near your 
home. Write an account of your discovery and exploration. Or 
write an account of a day's tramp in a strange woods. 

Write a description of this picture, first from memory and then 
with open book. 

Tell of thq king and queen, of Columbus, of the Indians, of the 
curiosities, of the spectators, and finally of the room. „ 

217. WHAT THE LONG NIGHT SAID. 

The last day we saw the sun, only the upper half was above the 
horizon at noon, and just as the rim was ready to sink, I fancied I 
heard the " Long Night " say to me : 

" For one night of six months I rule at the North Pole. Then I 
am most N powerful. In the course of countless ages I have frozen the 
sea and I have built a wall of ice so thick and so broad and so hard 
that no vessel will ever be strong enough to break through, and no 
man will ever reach the pole. I guard the approach to the pole and 
watch carefully the wall of ice I have built around it. When the sun 
drives me away and rules in his turn one day of six months at the 
pole (for the whole year is equally divided between us), he tries with 
his steady heat to destroy the wall I have built. On my return I re- 
pair the damage the sun has done and make the wall as strong as it 
was before. I send terrific gales and mighty snowstorms over oceans 
and lands and even far to the south of my dominion, for my power is 
so great that it is felt beyond my realm." 

There was a pause ; then I thought I heard the sardonic laugh of 
the " Long Night." It seemed like a laugh of defiance. 

— Fro?n " The Land of the Lo7ig Night " by Taul du Chaillu. 



A DIARY 323 



Exercise. 

Write in about as many words as this selection contains, an address 
that the sun might make, telling of what he has done and is doing for 
the people of this earth. Write a brief introduction and an appropri- 
ate closing paragraph similar to those found above. 

Write an answer made by some intrepid explorer to the boast that 
no man will ever reach the pole. 

Write a speech of the telephone, in which it tells what it has done 
for men. The same of electricity ; of the locomotive ; of natural gas. 

Write a speech that spring might make, telling of what she brings 
to the earth ; a speech that winter might make ; summer ; autumn. 



218. A DIARY. 

A diary is a daily account of certain facts occurring 
in a person's life. It may state the barest facts about the 
weather and about the writer's actions, or it may deal more 
fully with his experiences, containing an expression of his 
thoughts and feelings, an account of the people he meets ; 
the addresses he hears; the music he enjoys; the books 
he reads ; the places he visits, etc. A diary of the latter 
style becomes a most valuable help to one who wishes to 
learn to express his thoughts in writing. 

Exercise, 

For at least a week hand in daily to your teacher a composition 
dealing with your experiences and thoughts on the preceding day. 
Make it more than a mere statement of facts, and try to give it a 
literary form. 

219. PERSUASIVE WRITING. 

You wish your father or another person to give you 
something or to permit you to go somewhere or to do 
a certain thing. 



324 COMPOSITION 

You determine to put into writing your reasons for 
feeling that your wish should be granted. You first make 
a list of these reasons. Then you remember that your 
father will have reasons why your wish should not be 
granted. You think out all the reasons he will advance, 
make a list of them, and determine an answer for each. 

Now you are ready to write. You first make a brief 
opening paragraph. Then you give a paragraph to each 
of the main reasons why your wish should be granted, and 
a paragraph to each of your answers to possible objections. 
This constitutes the body of your paper. In a brief con- 
cluding paragraph you sum up your reasons, and close 
with a request that your desire be granted. 

This kind of composition, whether oral or written, is 
called persuasion or argumentation. 

Exercise. 

You wish your cousin or friend to spend the holidays at your home. 
Make a list of three or four reasons why he should come and one or 
two answers to possible objections. After making this brief outline 
write a letter to him. Use a brief opening paragraph, then a separate 
paragraph for each reason and answer, add the short concluding para- 
graph, and sign as usual. Be easy and natural, and write as you 
would talk if your cousin were present. 

In the same way write a letter to your father to persuade him to 
let you spend the summer on your uncle's farm, at your aunt's city 
home, at Chautauqua Lake, or at the ocean. 

Write a similar letter to a friend who is talking of leaving school, 
endeavoring to persuade him that it will be better for him to remain 
in school for at least another year. 

Write a letter to a friend urging him to go to the woods with you 
on Saturday instead of taking a bicycle ride. 

Write a letter to your grandmother urging her to come to visit you. 

Write a letter to your father in order to persuade him to l^uy you a. 
bicycle or anything else that you especially wish. 



LETTERS 325 



220. LETTERS AND ADVERTISEMENTS TO WRITE. 

Ex. I. Write an informal letter asking a friend to spend Thanks- 
giving and three or four succeeding days with you. 

Write a note thanking a friend in the country for a box of beauti- 
ful arbutus; or a note thanking a city friend for a bunch of chrysan- 
themums ; or your city cousin for a new rifle such as you have been 
wanting for a year. Show your appreciation and hearty thanks. 

Write a note to the principal of a preparatory school or the presi- 
dent of a college asking for a catalogue. 

Ex. II. Write a letter ordering ten different articles from a 
grocery store. Mention real prices and order real articles. Ask that 
the articles be sent to your home C. O. D. (that is, " collect on de- 
livery," meaning that you will pay for the articles when they are 
delivered). 

From a real catalogue order ten articles from a great depart- 
ment store. (Your teacher will have several catalogues at her 
desk.) Inclose money order for the amount of your purchase. Ask 
that the articles be sent by the express company that has an office 
near your home. 

One article received among goods ordered as above was very 
much soiled. In a letter state the exact trouble and ask what action 
you shall take, assuming that they will make the matter right. 

Ex. III. Write an advertisement to rent the house you live in ; 
an advertisement to sell your bicycle, used for one year ; to sell a 
horse and carriage ; to buy a second-hand typewriter ; a second-hand 
upright piano ; a lot at least 50 by 150 feet in the residence district; 
a farm of at least 100 acres within three miles of town. 



221. THE BOY TO THE SCHOOLMASTER. 

" You've quizzed me often and puzzled me long, 
You've asked me to cipher and spell, 

You've called me a dunce if I answered wrong, 
Or a dolt if I failed to tell 



326 COMPOSITION 

Just when to say lie and when to say lay, 

Or what nine-sevenths may make, 
Or the longitude of Kamchatka Bay, 

Or the I-forget-what's-its-name lake. 
So I think it's about my turn, I do, 

To ask a question or so of you." 

The schoolmaster grim he opened his eyes, 
But said not a word for sheer surprise. 

" Can you tell where the nest of the oriole swings, 

Or the color its egg may be ? 
Do you know the time when the squirrel brings 

Its young from the nest in the tree ? 
Can you tell when the chestnuts are ready to drop, 

Or where the best hazelnuts grow? 
Can you climb a high tree to the very tiptop, 



Then gaze without trembling below 



Can you swim and dive ; can you jump and run, 
Or do anything else we boys call fun ? " 

The master's voice trembled as he replied, 

" You are right, my lad ; I'm the dunce," he sighed. 1 

— Edward J. Wheeler. 

Exercises. 

Ex. I. Why did the schoolmaster open his eyes? Why was he 
silent? Why did his voice tremble? Why did he sigh? 

Ex. II. Write a paragraph telling whether you like or dislike 
these stanzas, and giving your reasons. 

Write two or three paragraphs telling of the things you know 
which you have not learned at school. 

Ex. III. Write two or three paragraphs telling of the things you 
have learned at school, and of the value they have been to you. 

Write two or three paragraphs of the things you have learned 
from this book during the time you have been studying it, and tell of 
some occasions when the information has been of use to you. 

i Used by permission of the author. 



SUMMARY OF RULES 327 



222. PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION. 

To the Teacher. The following summary, which includes only principles 
that should be emphasized in grammar-school work, is intended to be used for the 
marking of compositions. On the margin opposite an error is placed the number 
of the principle violated. After reading the principle and with the aid of the 
index looking up the Composition and Grammar references, the pupil must dis- 
cover the error he has made at the point indicated, and must correct it, preferably 
with a pencil or ink of a color different from that with which the composition is 
written. 

Much of this work should be done with compositions copied on the blackboard, 
each pupil in the class being required to correct every error indicated. As often 
as time permits, all compositions written for a given exercise should be marked by 
the teacher, returned to the pupils for correction, and examined a second time to 
see that the corrections are properly made. The teacher should regularly mark 
and return at least four or five papers taken from each set written, as pupils are 
more careful when they know that their papers may be examined. 

A few numbers are added in blank, that teachers may include any other prin- 
ciples that they wish to emphasize. 

The following paragraph shows concretely the method suggested : 



A kind act. 

As I was coming through the allegheny parks one 
day i noticed a large, " Newfoundland " dog standing 
near a pump looking longingly at it. a little girl with 
some Books under hir arm stopped beside the dog and 
pumped him a cool drink of water When the dog had 
had enough he licked her hand and looking up into her 
face he seemed to try his best thank her after patting 
his head for a moment she went in her way. 



/ 

2b 

5d 

jg-8-ja 

g/i-ja 

3b -4 

20a ~ba 

9/ 

qf-25-ba-sa 

15 



As an introductory exercise, children may be asked to correct the errors indicated 
in the above paragraph. Most of these principles may be used from the begin- 
ning, even before they have been formally studied in either the Grammar or the 
Composition. 

Rules of Composition. 

1. Write your name at the top of the first page of each written 
lesson, preferably to the right. 

2. (a) About two inches from the top of the first page write a 
title, (b) Begin its important words with capitals, (c) Under- 



328 COMPOSITION 

score it with three lines, (d) Leave an even margin of half an 
inch or more at each side of written work, (e) Begin the first line 
of each paragraph about half an inch from the margin. 

3. Avoid unnecessary (a) punctuation marks, including quota- 
tion marks and the apostrophe, (b) capital letters, and (c) italics. 

4. Spell correctly. 

5. Begin with a capital letter (a) every sentence; (b) every 
formal quotation; (c) l every name of the Deity, but not pronouns 
referring to these names; (d) l every proper name and proper adjec- 
tive ; (e) the principal words in titles of office or respect, in titles of 
books and poems, in headings of chapters, in names of firms, etc. ; (f) 
the first word of each line of poetry; (g) land O, but not oh. 

6. Use a period ( . ) (a) at the end of a declarative or imperative 
sentence ; (b) after an abbreviation ; (c) after yes and no when used 
alone ; (d) after initials. 

7. (a) Use an interrogation point (?) after direct questions, (b) 
Use an exclamation point ( ! ) after exclamatory sentences and ex- 
pressions. 

8. Never use a comma unless its presence will add to clearness. 

9. Use a comma ( , ) (a) to set off words of address ; (b) before 
a direct quotation and to set off words that divide a quotation; (c) 
after oh, and usually- after yes and no when not used alone; (d) after 
each word or expression in a series except the last ; (e) to separate 
two complete statements united by and, but, and similar connec- 
tives; (f) to set off parenthetical expressions and non-restrictive 
appositives; (g) to set off non-restrictive expressions beginning with 
who and which; (h) to set off independent participial elements; (i) 
wherever its presence, by appealing to the eye, will add to clearness. 

10. Inclose in quotation marks (" ") (a) the exact words of 
another included within your own writing ; (b) the names of books, 
of poems, of papers and magazines, and of vessels, (c) Inclose in 
single quotation marks (' ') a quotation within a quotation. 

11. Use the apostrophe (') (a) with s ('s) when writing the 
possessive form of the noun, except when the noun is plural and 
ends ins; (b) at the end of nouns in the plural ending in s when 
writing the possessive form; (c) to show the omission of a letter 
or of letters belonging to a word, (d) Do not use the apostrophe 
with ours, yours, 3ners, its, and theirs. 

1 When a name of the Deity or a proper name consists of several words, begin 
each important word with a capital; as, Son of Man, Gulf of Mexico, Abraham 
Lincoln. 



SUMMARY OF RULES 329 

12. Use a hyphen (-) (a) at the end of a line, after a syllable, 
when part of the word must be written on the next line ; (b) 
between the parts of compound words when the parts have not 
become united into a single word. 

13. Use short sentences. Make two or three sentences out of a 
single long one. 

14. Use simple words. 

15. Use words in their proper meaning. See p. 63 for oh; 
p. 221 for lie, lay, rise, raise, sit, and set; p. 258 for shall and will; 
p. 212 for who, which, and that. # 

16. Avoid slang. 

17. Avoid abbreviations, contractions, and corrupt forms of 
words (p. 53). 

18. Be sure that a verb agrees with its subject. 

19. (a) Do not use the past participle instead of the past tense, or 
vice versa, (b) Use verbs in the proper tense, (c) Use the subjunc- 
tive form of the verb to express conditions contrary to fact. 

20. (a) Place adjectives where they must modify the word de- 
sired, (b) Use a and an correctly, (c) Use than after an adjec- 
tive in the comparative degree, (d) Use other to exclude the thing 
being compared. 

21. Place adverbs near the words they modify. 

22. Do not use adjectives for adverbs or adverbs for adjectives. 

23. Use pronouns according to the rules of grammar. 

24. (a) Punctuate and capitalize as shown in the perfect letter 
form, p. 69. (b) Use only a colon ( :) after the salutation when the 
body of the letter begins on the following line ; when it begins on the 
same line use the colon and the dash (: — ). (c) Do not omit any 
parts of the letter form. 

25. Do not omit necessary words. 

26. Omit unnecessary words. 

27. (a) A paragraph should deal with one definite part of a sub- 
ject, (b) A sentence should include only closely related thoughts. 
See pp. 125 and 145-147. 

28. Make your sentences express exactly your meaning. 



INDEX. 



Figures refer to pages. The letter / following a figure means and the following page ; 
ff means and the following pages. 

apostrophe, uses of the, 59. 

and s, relation shown by, 188. 
apposition, explained, 20. 
appositives, case of, 191. 

punctuation of, 20, 150 ff. 
argumentation, 323 f. 
articles, correct use of, 273 f. 

defined, 268. 
as, relative pronoun, 213. 
as ... as in equal comparisons, 289. 
assert, meaning of in definitions, n. 
assertion made by auxiliary, 245. 
attribute, defined, 89. • 

seeming to make passive voice, 225 f. 
attributive verbs, 87 footnote, 
auxiliary verbs, 224. 

assert in potential mode, 245. 



a, uses of, 232, 273. 
absolute phrase, 115 f. 
abstract noun, defined, 26 f. 

formed from participle, 101. 
active and passive forms, 226 f. 
active voice, 225. 
acts due to feeling, 131 f, 133 f. 
address, of letter, 68. 
adjective clause, 108. 

how connected, 1 10 ff . 
adjective phrase, 108. 
adjective pronouns, 216. 
adjectives, agreement with noun, 274. 

and adverbs, 36 f, 282 f . 

classes of, 267, 268. 

comparison of, 269 ff. 

defined, 34 f. 

errors in comparison and arrange- 
ment, 274. 

irregular, list of, 271. 

parsing of, 277. 

punctuation of, in a series, 157, 272. 

review of, 275 ff. 

syntax of, 267 ff. 
adverbial clauses, uses of, 113 ff. 
adverbial objective, 191. 
adverbial phrases, 108. 
adverbs, and adjectives, 36 f, 282 f . 

classes of, 278 f. 

comparison of, 280. 

conjunctive 112 f, 114, 278. 

defined, 35 f. 

irregular, 280 f . 

parsing of, 281. 

syntax of, 278 ff. 

that modify a phrase, 280. 

used as coordinate conjunctions, 124 f. 
advertisements, 312. 
affect, use of, yy f. 
" airit," 138. 
an, uses of, 273. 
analysis, explained, 11. 

of sentences with modifiers, 38. 
and, not to be used for to, 248. 



B 



be, conjugation of, 249 ff. 
beside, besides, 77 f. 
bills and receipts, 300 f. 
body, of letter, 68. 
both . . . and, 288 footnote, 
business letter, 69, 76. 
but, relative pronoun, 213. 
but that, as conjunction, 216. 



can and may, use of, 86. 
capital letters, use of, 9, 169 ff . 
case, explained, 188 f . 

formation of the possessive, 59, 195 ff. 

forms in English, 189. 

inflection, explained, 188 f. 

nominative independent, 191. 

old dative, 207 footnote. 

relations, outline of, 190 f. 
cases, uses of, 190 f. 
character, explained, 64 f . 

way to suggest, 64 f. 



330 



INDEX 



33i 



clause, explained, 106 f, 121. 
clauses, adjective, 108, no ff. 

adverbial, 108, 113 ff. 

kinds of, 107 ff . 

noun, 108, 116 ff. 
closing phrase, the, 68. 
collective nouns, 185 f. 
colon, uses of the, 159. 
comma, between parts of a compound 
sentence, 141 ff. 

independent elements, 15, 150 f. 

parenthetical expressions, 150 f. 

quotations, 75 f . 

restrictive expressions, 153 f. 

with appositives, 20, 150 ff. 

words in a series, 156 f. 

words of address, 15, 141. 
common gender, pronouns used with 

nouns of the, 174. 
common nouns, 168 f. 
comparison, 178, 269 ff. 

degrees of, 270. 

descending, 271. 

errors in, 274 f. 

of adjectives, 270 f. 

of adverbs, 280 f . 

other in, 272 f. 
complements, 87 f. 

attribute, 89. 

factitive, 92 f ; after passive verb, 227. 

kinds of, 89 f . 

object, 89. 

objective, 93 footnote, 
complete verbs, 87. 
complex sentence, 120 f. 
composition, plan of a, 149. 

unity of a, 145 ff. 
compound nouns, plurals of, 182. 

possessive case of, 196. 
compound personal pronouns, 203, 205. 
compound relative pronouns, 213. 
compound sentence, 122 ff . 

members related in thought, 125 f. 
compound subjects, 237. 
concrete nouns, 26 f . 
conjugation, 178, 248. 

emphatic, 256. 

of verb be, 249 ff. 

of verb love, 252 ff. 

progressive, 256. 
conjunctions, 42 f, 287 ff. 

adverbs used as coordinate, 124 f. 

co'rdinate and subordinate, 287 f . 

coordinate in compound sentences, 
124 f . 

coordinate, uses of, 127. 

correlative, 288 f . 



conjunctions, parsing of, 289. 

subordinate in adverbial clauses, 114. 

subordinate, uses of, 127. 

syntax of, 287 ff. 

two or three words used as, 289. 
conjunctive adverb, 112 f, 278. 

in adverbial clause, 114. 
conjunctive pronouns, in. 
connectives, kinds of words used as, 287. 
contracted sentence, 237. 
conversation, the writing of, 62. 
coordinate conjunctions, 287 f. 

in compound sentences, 124 f. 
coordinate members of a compound sen- 
tence, 122. 
coordinate relative pronouns, 212. 
copulas, 90 f. 
copulative verbs, 90 f. 
correlative conjunctions, 288 f. 

uses of, 289. 



dative case, the old, 207, footnote, 
declension, explained, 178. 

of the personal pronoun, 202 f. 
defective verbs, 240. 
definitive adjectives, 267. 
demonstrative adjectives, 268. 
descending comparison, 271 
description, art of, 160 f . 

practical, 296 f . 

theory of, 161. 
descriptive adjectives, 267. 
diagram, explanation of form used in 
this book, 11, 32. 

infinitive in, 98 ff. 

participle in, 102 ff. 

value of, 114. 
do, uses of, 257. 
donH, doesn't, 71. 



effect, use of verb, 165. 
either and both, use of, 164. 
either and neither, use of, 274. 
elements of the sentence, 96. 
else, with sign of possession, 21 foot- 
note, 198. 
emphatic conjugation, 256 f. 
envelopes, 70 f. 
exclamation point, 9, 165 f . 
expect, use of, 86. 
expletive, 19, 45, 290. 



33* 



INDEX 



factitive complement, 92 f. 

after passive verb, 227. 
feeling, how to suggest in literature, 133. 
feminine gender, 171, 173. 
feminine pronouns, when used, 173, 174. 
figurative words, 317. 
figures of speech, 304, 315, 316, 317. 
finite verbs, 97. 

for, as expletive, 100, 293 footnote, 
friendly letter, the, illustrated, 51 f, 56 f, 
58 f. 

form of, 78. 

G 
gender, 171 ff. 

common, 171, 174. 

shown in three ways, 172. 

value of, 172 ff. 
gerund, 101 footnote. 
get, use of, 302. 

gone as attribute after is or are, 225 f . 
grammatical subject and predicate, 31 ff. 
grave form of pronouns, 205 . 

H 

had ought, why incorrect, 240. 
heading, of letter, 68. 
hints, or suggestions, 64 f. 
his own, use of, 203. 

I 

idiomatic expressions, explained, 204 f . 
imperative mode and its uses, 246. 
impersonal verbs, 240. 
in and into, use of, 159 f. 
incomplete verbs, 87. 
indicative mode, 241 ff. 

tenses of, 242 f. 

uses of, 241 f. 
indirect object, 94 f . 

in passive voice, 226. 
indirect questions, how introduced, 211 

footnote, 
infinitive, 96 ff, 246 ff. 

as assumed predicate, to diagram, 98. 

in ing, 10 1 footnote. 

parsing of, 261. 

tenses of, 246 ff. 

time denoted by tenses of, 246 f . 

uses of, 98 f . 
inflection, 177 f. 

case, 189. 

of nouns to show relation, 188 ff. 

of personal pronouns, 201 ff. 

verbal, 224 ff . 



interjections, 15, 44 f, 290. 

equivalent to sentences, 45. . 
interrogation point, 9, 67, 129. 
interrogative adjectives, 268. 
interrogative adverbs, 279. 
interrogative pronouns, 215 f. 
interrogative sentence, order of, 17. 
intransitive verbs, 219 ff. 

that seem to have voice, 225 f. 

with preposition as transitive, 227. 
introduction, the letter of, 307 ff. 
introductory words, 19 f. 
invitation, the note of, 312. 
irregular adjectives, 271. 
irregular adverbs, 280 f. 
irregular plurals, 179 f. 
irregular verbs, list of, 264 ff. 
it introductory, 20. 
it rains, etc., 240. 



lay, use of, 221 f. 

lend and loan, use of, 147. 

letter, form of, 68, 76, 78. 

friendly, illustrated, 51 f, 56 f, 58 f. 

model of business, 69. 

of introduction, 307 ff. 

of invitation, 312. 

punctuation of parts of, 69. 
letters, capital, use of, 169 ff. 
lie, use of, 221 f. 
like, use of, 313. 
literary phrases, 107, 316. 
love, conjugation of, 252 ff. 

use of, 313. 



M 



mad, use of, 54. 

marking compositions, suggestions for, 

67 f, 327. 
masculine gender, 171 ff. 
may and can, use of, 86. 
member, principal, 120. 
members, coordinate, 122. 
meseems, idiom, 205. 
methinks, idiom, 205. 
mine, a friend of, idiom, 204. 
mine and thine, use of, 204 f. 
modal adverbs, 279. 
mode, 228 f. 

imperative, 246. 

indicative, 241 ff. 

potential, 244 f. 

subjunctive, 243 f. 



INDEX 



335 



modifiers, 33 f. 

clause, no ff. 

phrase, 37 f. 
myself for simple personal pronoun, 
208. 

N 

names, plurals of, 179, 181. 

natural order of the sentence, 17. 

neither and either, use of, 274. 

neuter gender, 171 ff. 

neuter nouns seldom used in possessive 

case, 197. 
no and yes as adverbs, etc., 279. 
nominative case, uses of, 190. 
nominative independent, 191. 
none, adjective pronoun, 216. 
non-restrictive, meaning of, 151. 
note of invitation, 312. 
noun clauses, 108, 116 ff. 
noun phrases, 108 f . 
nouns, abstract, 26 f, 101. 

always plural, 184. 

always singular, 184. 

classification of, 168 f. 

collective, 185 f. 

common, 168 f . 

compound, plurals of, 182. 

compound, possessive case of, 196. 

concrete, 26 f . 

defined, 25 f. 

inflection of to show relation, 188. 

made up of two or more words, 33. 

neuter seldom used in possessive 
case, 197. 

parsing, 192 f. 

plural in form, singular in meaning, 
184. 

proper, 168 f . 

relation of, shown by position, 187. 

verbal, 101 footnote, 
number, rules for forming plural, 178 ff. 

singular and plural, 178. 

singular or plural, with verb, 234. 



O 

object complement, 89. 
object, indirect, 94 f, 226. 
object of a preposition, 40. 
object, retained, 227. 
objective, adverbial, 191. 
objective case, uses of, 190. 

of nouns ; reason for using term, i{ 
objective complement, 93 footnote. 
off 0/and onto, to be avoided, 285. 



ok and O, use of, 62, 63. 

one, adjective pronoun, 2x6. 

onto and off of, to be avoided, 285 f . 

oral analysis, model for, 11. 

order in narration, 144 f . 

order, natural, of the sentence, 17. 

of interrogative sentences, 17. 
other in comparison, 272. 
own to take place of possessive of com- 
pound personal pronouns, 203. 



paragraph, concluding, 62 f, 146, 149. 

in written conversation, 66. 

introductory, 62, 145, 149. 

unity in, 145 f. 

way to indicate a new, 145. 
parsing, explained, 192. 

of the adjective, 277. 

of the adverb, 281. 

of the conjunction, 289. 

of the infinitive and the participle, 
261. 

of the noun, 192 f . 

of the preposition, 286. 

of the pronoun, 206. 

of the verb, 260. 
participial phrase, 248. 
participle, the, 96, 100 ff, 248. 

as abstract noun, 101. 

forms of, 104 f. 

parsing of, 261. 

tenses of, 104 f, 238 f. 

uses of, 101. 
partitive words, 233. 
parts of speech, 25. 

expanded, 106 f . 

summary of, 46. 
passive and active forms, 226 f . 
passive voice, 225, 255. 
past tense, formation of, 238. 
period, uses of, 9, 67, 328. 
person, 175 f. 
personal pronouns, 201. 

compound, formation of, 203. 

declension of, 202 f. 

inflection of, 201 ff. 

reason for name, 201. 

uses of, 172 ff, 203 ff. , 
persuasive writing, 323 f . 
phrase adverbs, 280. 
phrase modifiers, 37 f. 
phrases, absolute, 115 f. 

adjective, 108. 



334 



INDEX 



phrases, adverbial, 108. 

and clauses, kinds of, 107 ff . 

explained, 38, 106. 

literary, 316. 

noun, 108 ff. 

participial, 248. 

prepositional, 108 remark, 
pictures, details necessary to suggest, 

with words, 161. 
place, wrong use of, jy. 
plan of a composition, 149. 
plural number, 178. 

rules for forming, 178 ff. 
plurals, irregular, 179 f. 

of compound nouns, 182. 

of different meanings, 182 f. 

of figures, etc., 182. 

of proper nouns, 179, 181. 
possessive case, exercises in use of, 197 ff . 

formation of, 195 ff. 

rules for forming, 59, 196. 

uses of, 245. 
possessive form as subject and object, 

204. 
possessive personal pronouns, two forms 

of, 204. 
possessive relation shown by preposi- 
tional objective, 196. 
possessive sign used with else, 198. 
postal cards, 138, 144. 
potential mode and its tenses, 244 f . 

assertion made by auxiliary, 245. 
practical description, 296 f. 
predicate, 10. 

compound, 21 f, 119. 

grammatical, 31 ff. 

modified, 32. 

of exclamatory sentence, 13. 

of imperative sentence, 13. 

of interrogative sentence, 12. 

out of natural order, 17 f. 

review of subject and, 22. 
predicate adjective, 268 footnote, 
preposition, 39 ff . 

following certain words, 285. 

object of, 40. 

parsing of, 286. 

rules for using, 285 f . 

syntax of, 284 ff. 

with intransitive verb to form transi- 
tive verb, 227. 
prepositional phrases, 108 remark, 
primary tenses, 230. 
principal parts of the verb, 239. 
progressive conjugation, 256. 
pronouns, 27 ff, in, 172 ff, 200 ff. 

adjective, 216. 

antecedent clear, 209 f. 



pronouns, as attributes, 203. 

as subject of finite verb, 203. 

as subject of infinitive, 203. 

classes of, 201. 

compound personal, 203, 205. 

compound relative, formation of, 213. 

conjunctive, in. 

dangers in using, 304 f . 

declension of, 202 f, 211, 215. 

grave form, use of, 205, 209. 

interrogative, 215 f. 

parsing of, 206. 

personal, 201 ff, 206 ff. 

possessive form as subject and object, 
204. 

reflexive, 205 footnote. 

relative, in, 210 ff. 

uses of, 172 ff, 205, 212 f. 
proper nouns, 168 f . 

plurals of, 179, 181. 
punctuation, of apposi fives, 20, 150. 

of compound sentences, 141 ff. 

of coordinate relative clauses, 150 ff, 
212. 

of parenthetical expressions; 150 ff. 

of parts of a letter, 69. 

of quotations, 57, 75 f. 

of restrictive relative clauses, 150 ff, 
213. 

of sentences, 128 ff. 

of series, 156 f. 

of words of address, 15, 141. 

uses of the various marks of, 327-329. 



question, indirect, how introduced, 211 

footnote, 
quotation marks, use of double, 57. 

use of single, 79 f . 
quotations, punctuation of, 57, 75 f. 
of several paragraphs, how marked, 
79 f. 



raise, use of, 221 f. 

receipts and bills, 300 f . 

redundant verbs, 240. 

reflexive pronouns, 205 footnote. 

relation of nouns shown by position, 187. 

relative clauses, punctation of, 212 f. 

relative pronoun, 111,210. 

as connective of adjective clauses, in. 

cautions, 214 f. 

coordinate, 212. 

near to antecedent, 214. 

restrictive, 212. 

restrictive, meaning of, 151. 



INDEX 



335 



restrictive and non-restrictive expres- 
sions, punctuation of, 150 ff. 
restrictive relative, 212. 
retained object, 227. 
review of adjectives, 275 ff. 

of complements and indirect objects, 
95 f. 

of infinitives and participles, 105 f. 

of nouns, gender and person, 176 f . 

of nouns, gender, person, number, and 
case, 200. 

of parts of speech, 48. 

of phrases, clauses, and sentences, 130. 

of pronouns, 217 f. 

of subject and predicate, 16 f, 22 ff . 

of verb forms, 262 f . 
rise, use of, 221 f. 



salutation, in letter, 68. 
secondary tenses, 230. 
semicolon, use of, 158 f . 
sentence, the, 7 f . 

complex, 120 f, 128 f. 

compound, 122 f, 141 ff. 

contracted, 237. 

declarative, 9. 

elements of, 96. 

essential parts of, 11. 

exclamatory, 9. 

imperative, 9. 

interrogative, 9. 

members of compound related in 
thought, 125 f. 

natural order of the, 17. 

principal member of the complex, 120. 

simple, 118 f. 

structure of the, 118. 

summary of the, 126 ff. 
.y-form of the verb, 231 f . 
set, use of, 221 ff. 
shall and will, use of, 258 ff. 
should and would, use of, 259. 
signature, in letter, 68. 
simple sentence, 118 f. 
singular number, 178. 
sit, use of, 221 ff. 
slang, to be avoided, yy. 
so . . . as, 288 footnote, 289. 
strong verbs, 239 footnote, 
structure of the sentence, the, 118. 
subject, 10. 

compound, 21 f, 119, 237. 

grammatical, 31 ff. 

modified, 32. 

of exclamatory sentence, 13. 



subject of imperative sentence, 13. 

of interrogative sentence, 12. 

out of natural order, 17 f. 

review of, 16 f, 22. 

to determine, 18. 

two singular subjects connected by 
or, etc., 236 f . 
subjunctive mode, 243 f . 
subordinate conjunctions, 287 f . 

in adverbial clauses, 114. 
substantives, 29 f . 
suggestion in literature, 64 f. 
suggestion of feelings, 134. 
suggestions or hints, 64 f. 
suggestive words, 314^ 316, 317, 319. 
summary of the parts of speech, 46. 

of the sentence, 126 ff, 128 ff. 
synopsis, 255. 
syntax explained, 192. 



telegrams, 80 ff. 
tense, 229 f . 

formation of past, 238. 
tenses, use of various, 23*0. 
term of address, 15. 
that, relative pronoun, use of, 212. 
the, use of, 232, 273, 294. 
there, introductory, 19. 
thought, incomplete expression of, 14. 
times, verb after in 3 times, etc., 234. 
to of infinitive omitted, 08, 246. 

sign of infinitive, 99. 
transitive verb, 219 ff . 

and voice, 225. 

U 

unity, 145 f. 

of thought in members of compound 
sentences, 125 f . 



variety, number of verb following, 233. 
verbal inflections, 224. 
verbal nouns, 101 footnote, 
verbs, 30 f, 218 ff . 

and the property of number, 231 

attribute of, 8q. 

attributive, 8 footnote. 

auxiliary, 224. 

classes of, 218 f. 

copulative, 90. 

defective, 240. 

errors in use of transitive and intran- 
sitive, 220 ff. 



33& 



INDEX 



verbs, finite or limited, 97. 

impersonal, 240. 

irregular, list of, 264 ff . 

made up of two or more words, 33. 

object of, 89. 

of complete predication, 87. 

of incomplete predication, 87. 

parsing of, 260. 

principal and auxiliary, 224. 

principal parts of, 239. 

redundant, 240. 

regular and irregular, 238 ff. 

strong and weak, 239 footnote. 

transitive and intransitive, 219 f . 

use of with singular and plural sub- 
jects, 232 ff, 236 ff. 
voice, 225 f. 

passive, formation of, 255. 

W 

weak verbs, 239 footnote. 

■what, interrogative pronoun, 216. 

relative pronoun, 213. 
■whether, old interrogative pronoun, 215. 
which, interrogative pronoun, 216. 

relative pronoun, 212. 
■who, interrogative pronoun, 216. 

relative pronoun, 212. 



■will, shall, use of, 258 ff. 

woman's signature, how written, 68. 

words, in apposition, 20. 

introductory, 19. 

suggestive, 314 f, 316, 317, 319. 
words to watch : 

affect, effect, 165. 

ainH for am not, etc., 138. 

beside, besides, 77. 

donH, doesnH, 71. 

either, both, 164. 

expect, 86. 

get, have, 302. 

in, into, 159. 

lend, loan, 147. 

like, love, 313. 

mad, angry, 54. 

may, can, 86. 

oh, O, 63. 
words used as different parts of speech, 

list of, 290 ff . 
will, shall, use of, 258 ff 
would, sho?dd, use of, 259. 
writing, persuasive, 323 f. 



yes, expressing thought incompletely, 14. 
yes and no as adverbs, etc., 279 



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